International  €!toati0n 


EDITED   BY 

WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,  A.M.,  LL.D. 


VOLUME  XXVII. 


INTERNATIONAL    EDUCATION    SERIES. 

cloth,  uniform  binding. 


rpHE  INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES  was  projected  for  the  pur- 
-1-  pose  of  bringing  together  in  orderly  arrangement  the  best  writings,  new  and 
old,  upon  educational  subjects,  and  presenting  a  complete  course  of  reading  and 
training  for  teachers  generally.  It  is  edited  by  WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,  LL.  D., 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  who  has  contributed  for  the  different 
volumes  in  the  way  of  introduction,  analysis,  and  commentary. 
1.  The  Philosophy  of  Education.  By  JOHANN  K.  F.  ROSENKRANZ,  Doc- 

tor of  Theology  and  Professor  of  Philosophy.  University  of  KOnigsberg. 

Translated  by  ANNA  C.  BRACKETT.     Second  edition,  revised,  with  Com- 

mentary and  complete  Analysis  .    $  1  .50. 
£.  A  History  of  Education.     By  F.  V.  N.  PAINTER,  A.M.,  Professor  of 

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1904.    $1.20  net. 
8.  The  Kise  and  Early  Constitution  of  Universities.     WITH  A  SUR- 

VEY OP  MEDLEVAL  EDUCATION.    By  S.  S.  LAUKIE,  LL.  D.,  Professor  ol 

the  Institutes  and  History  of  Education,  University  of  Edinburgh.    $1.50. 

4.  The  Ventilation  and  Warming  of  School  Buildings.    By  GILBERT 

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$1.00. 

5.  The  Education  of  Man.    By  FRIEDRICH  FROEBEL.     Translated  and  an- 

notated by  W.  N.  HAILMANN,  A.  M.,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools, 
La  Porte,  Ind.  $1.50. 

6.  Elementary  Psychology  and    Education.     By   JOSEPH   BALDWIN, 

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7.  The  Senses  and  the  Will.    (Part  I    of  "THE  MIND  OP  THE  CHILD.") 

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8.  Memory:  What  it  is  and  How  to  Improve  it.      By  DAVID  EAT, 

F.  R.  G.  S.,  author  of  "  Education  and  Educators,"  etc.     $1.50. 

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CHILD.")  By  W.  PREYER,  Professor  of  Physiology  in  Jena.  Translated  by 
H.W.  BROWN.  $1.50. 

10.  How  to  Study  Geography.     A  Practical  Exposition  of  Methods  and 

Devices  in  Teaching  Geography  which  apply  the  Principles  and  Plans  01 
Ritter  and  Guyot.  By  FRANCIS  W.  PARKER,  Principal  of  the  Cook  County 
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11.  Education  in  the  United  States  :  Its  History  from  the  Earliest 

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18.  A  Text-Book  in  Psychology.  By  JOHANN  FRIEDRICH  HBRBART.   Trans- 

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19.  Psychology  Applied  to  the  Art  of  Teaching.    By  JOUPH  BALDWIN, 

A.M.,LLYD.    $1.50. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES.— (Continued.) 

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24.  Mental  Development  of  the  Child.     By  W.  PHETER,  Professor  ol 

Physiology  in  Jena.    Translated  by  H.  W.  BROWN.    $1.00. 

25.  How  to  Study  and  Teach  History.   By  B.  A.  HINSDALE,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.. 
<          University  of  Michigan.    $1.50. 

16.  Symholic  Education.    A  COMMENTARY  ON  FROEBEL'S  "  MOTHER-PLAY/' 

By  SUSAN  E.  BLOW.    $1 .50. 

27.  Systematic  Science  Teaching.    By  EDWARD  GARDNIER  HOWE.    $1.50. 

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41    Froebel's    Educational    taws    for   all    Teachers.      By  JAMES   L, 

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OTHER  VOLUMES  IN  PREPARATION. 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPAQ,  NEW  YORK. 


INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES 


SYSTEMATIC 
SCIENCE    TEACHING 


A  MANUAL  OF  INDUCTIVE  ELEMENTARY 
WORK  FOR  ALL  INSTRUCTORS 


BY 

EDWARD   GARDNIER  HOWE 


NEW  YORK 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 
1906 


COPYRIGHT,  1894, 
BY  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY. 

^jj*&^^ 


ELECTROTYPED  AND  PRINTED 
AT  THE  APPLETON  PRESS,  U.  S.  A. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 


A  MANUAL  of  instruction  in  natural  science  for  use 
in  the  elementary  schools  has  long  been  in  request ;  but 
attempts  to  supply  this  have  hitherto  failed,  for  one  of 
two  reasons.  Either  they  were  one-sided,  giving  too 
much  prominence  to  some  narrow  field  of  science  and 
apparently  assuming  that  other  fields  had  no  claim  on 
the  attention  of  the  pupil,  or  else  they  have  given  too 
little  assistance  to  the  teacher  or  the  pupil,  and  have 
limited  themselves  to  offering  vague  general  directions 
as  to  matter  and  method.  The  teacher's  manual  should 
give  much  of  the  matter  to  be  taught,  and  make  defi- 
nite references  to  other  sources  of  information  for  much 
more  material.  Above  all,  it  should  illustrate  methods 
of  instruction;  it  should  show  the  method  of  investi- 
gation adapted  to  each  province  of  Nature.  A  dry  list 
of  topics,  although  arranged  in  the  proper  sequence,  does 
not  make  a  sufficient  manual.  It  should  give  enough  of 
the  results  of  scientific  research  to  set  the  teacher  and 
pupil  on  the  right  track  of  inquiry.  It  should  direct 
his  investigation  in  a  twofold  direction :  First,  to  au- 
thoritative books  written  by  competent  scientific  men, 
and  setting  forth  in  a  clear  and  succinct  manner  the  re- 
sults of  the  observations  and  experiments  of  scientific 
specialists  in  each  field.  Second,  it  should  direct  the 

(v) 

240786 


vi  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

teacher  and  pupil  how  to  get  access  to  the  real  objects  in 
Nature,  and  how  to  verify  for  one's  self  the  discoveries 
that  have  been  made  by  the  specialists.  For  this  purpose 
the  book  must  illustrate  by  a  sufficient  variety  of  experi- 
ments the  method  of  discovery  in  each  field  of  research. 
The  school  attempts  to  place  the  pupil  on  the  point  of 
advantage  where  he  can  profit  by  the  results  and  by  the 
methods  of  his  predecessors.  He  must  get  not  only  the 
dead  results,  but  also  the  living  method — the  method  of 
observation  and  discovery. 

The  powers  of  observation  are  strengthened  chiefly  by 
learning  to  think  about  what  one  sees.  It  is  often  held 
that  observation  is  cultivated  only  by  using  the  senses. 
But  sharpness  of  the  senses  is  a  different  matter  from 
the  capacity  for  scientific  observation.  The  latter  is  a 
matter  of  apperception,  and  not  of  mere  perception.  It 
is  the  act  of  recognizing,  and  not  the  act  of  mere  seeing, 
that  gives  us  scientific  knowlqdge.  The  acute  seeing 
of  the  hawk  or  the  greyhound  does  not  lead  to  science. 
The  dim  eyes  of  the  aged  Humboldt  see  a  thousand  cir- 
cumstances in  the  object  which  escape  the  eyes  of  the 
bird  and  dog,  because  Humboldt's  eyes  are  armed  with 
the  experience  of  the  human  race  and  with  the  methods 
discovered  by  a  long  line  of  scientific  men.  He  brings 
with  him  their  results  and  their  methods,  and  a  swift 
glance  interprets  the  object  even  when  dimly  seen.  From 
the  details  partially  seen  the  observer  knows  the  rest. 
Louis  Agassiz  or  Theodore  Gill  could  make  a  drawing  of 
the  entire  fish  from  seeing  only  a  scale ;  this  has  been 
done  even  when  only  the  scale,  and  not  the  fish  itself,  had 
ever  yet  been  seen  by  the  one  or  the  other.  The  geolo- 
gist Lyell  could  read  its  history  in  a  pebble.  The  archae- 
ologist Winckelmann  could  recognize  a  Juno,  a  Diana,  or 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  vii 

a  Venus  in  classic  sculpture  if  only  the  eye  were  uncov- 
ered and  all  the  rest  concealed.  Such  is  the  power  of  the 
reflective  intellect,  which  discovers  relations  and  interde- 
pendencies,  to  re-enforce  the  perception  of  the  senses. 

The  first  step  above  brute  instinct  begins  when  man 
looks  beyond  things  as  he  perceives  them  with  his  eyes, 
ears,  and  hands,  and  commences  to  consider  their  possi- 
bilities. He  then  begins  to  add  to  his  external  seeing  an 
internal  seeing,  and  the  world  soon  assumes  a  new  aspect : 
each  object  appears  to  contain  more  than  what  is  im- 
mediately visible  and  tangible ;  for  there  is  a  sphere  of 
possibility  environing  it,  a  sort  of  halo  about  it  in  which 
shine  other  possibilities  that  essentially  belong  to  the 
nature  of  the  object  perceived — namely,  the  past  stages 
of  development  through  which  this  object  has  become 
what  it  is,  and  the  future  stages  through  which  it  is 
destined  to  pass  in  its  natural  course  of  development. 
The  sharp  eyes  of  the  lynx  or  of  the  eagle  can  not  see 
this  halo  of  possibilities ;  but  the  scientific  man,  endowed 
with  this  new  faculty  of  inward  sight,  perceives,  or  rather 
apperceives  it  at  once.  He  sees  in  each  object  its  past 
and  its  future,  and  a  great  variety  of  uses  and  adapta- 
tions, transformations  and  combinations,  in  a  long  series 
stretching  into  the  infinite  behind  each  visible  thing. 
The  bodily  eyes  see  the  real  objects,  but  not  the  infinite 
trails ;  these  are  invisible,  except  to  the  mind  armed  with 
science.  The  senses  perceive  what  is  now  and  here ;  the 
scientific  mind  makes  a  synthesis,  and  sees  what  is  present 
in  the  perspective  of  all  times  and  places. 

What  is  called  directive  power  on  the  part  of  man,  his 
combining  and  organizing  power,  all  rests  on  this  power 
to  see  beyond  the  real  things  before  the  senses  to  the 
ideal  possibilities  invisible  to  the  brute. 


SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

The  more  clearly  man  sees  ideals  the  more  perfectly 
he  can  construct  for  himself  another  set  of  conditions 
than  those  in  which  he  finds  himself. 

Each  object  in  the  world  exists  now  in  one  of  its 
many  possibilities;  its  reality  of  the  past  has  changed, 
and  its  reality  of  to-day  will  give  way  to  other  forms  of 
reality  in  the  future.  An  acorn  to-day  was  an  oak  blos- 
som once,  and  before  that  a  bud ;  it  will  be  a  sapling,  and 
then  an  oak  tree  with  a  crop  of  acorns.  But  the  senses 
can  behold  only  one  particular  phase  of  this  development 
— what  happens  to  be  then  present.  Science  collects 
about  each  object  all  its  phases  of  existence,  for  it  is  the 
systematized  result  of  observation ;  it  teaches  the  student 
to  look  at  a  thing  as  a  whole,  and  see  in  it  not  only  what 
is  present  but  has  been  realized  before  and  now  out- 
grown, as  well  as  what  is  now  potential  and  will  by  and 
by  come  to  be.  Science  unites  facts  into  a  system  in  such 
a  manner  that  each  fact  throws  light  on  the  other  facts, 
and  thus  all  facts  help  to  explain  each.  This  is  the  defi- 
nition of  science. 

From  science  comes  the  ability  to  conquer  Nature  and 
relieve  mankind  from  mere  drudgery  for  the  sake  of  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter.  For  science  lights  the  way  to 
combinations  of  matter  and  force — to  inventions  where- 
by the  energy  in  nature  may  be  made  to  produce  the 
supply  of  the  human  wants  of  food,  clothing,  and  shel- 
ter. 

The  civilization  in  which  we  live  is  well  described  as 
scientific.  It  is  the  application  of  science  to  the  inven- 
tion and  use  of  labor-saving  machines  that  increases  the 
productive  power  of  the  laborer.  There  is  less  and  less 
place  left  for  the  mere  drudge,  who  is  all  hands  and  no 
brain.  Machinery  can  do  his  work  so  cheaply  that  his 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  ix 

wages  must  grow  more  and  more  inadequate  for  his  sup- 
port. But  for  the  educated  laborer,  armed  with  science 
and  able  to  direct  machinery,  there  is  ever-increasing 
productive  power  and  a  continually  increasing  share  in 
the  productions  of  industry. 

Science  leads  to  invention,  and  invention  leads  to  the 
demand  for  a  scientifically  educated  class  of  laborers. 
Education  emancipates  the  laborer  from  the  deadening 
effects  of  repetition  and  habit,  the  monotony  of  mere 
mechanical  toil,  and  opens  to  him  a  vista  of  new  inven- 
tions and  more  useful  combinations. 

This  changes  the  conditions  of  apprenticeship.  The 
old  seven-year  term  of  apprenticeship  was  necessary  when 
so  much  depended  on  nicety  of  manipulation.  To-day 
the  machine  substitutes  mechanical  nicety  and  precision 
in  place  of  skill  of  hand  and  eye.  All  that  is  required  is 
a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  machine  and  of  the  material 
that  it  works  upon.  Gladstone  estimated,  in  1870,  that 
the  productive  power  of  England  doubled  once  in  seven 
years  by  the  increase  and  improvement  of  machinery. 
The  production  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  in- 
creased from  twenty-five  cents  per  day  for  each  man, 
woman  and  child  in  1850,  to  forty  cents  per  day  in  1880, 
chiefly  by  the  introduction  and  use  of  machinery. 

In  view  of  the  influence  of  science  on  our  civilization 
it  would  seem  important  to  introduce  the  pupils  of  our 
elementary  schools  to  the  results  and  methods  of  science 
as  early  as  possible.  This  depends  mainly  upon  the 
mathematics  involved  in  science.  Some  sciences  demand 
higher  mathematics,  and  must  be  postponed  until  the 
high  school  or  the  college  course.  Nearly  all  the  sciences, 
however,  have  qualitative  and  quantitative  aspects  that 
may  be  made  of  interest  to  the  young  pupil.  This  makes 


x  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

it  possible  to  arrange  a  spiral  course  of  study  in  natural 
science  extending  from  the  commencement  of  the  pri- 
mary course  of  study  to  the  last  year  of  the  college.  The 
first  cycle  deals  with  objects  familiar  to  the  experience  of 
the  child  of  seven  years  and  teaches  him  how  to  observe 
and  classify.  In  teaching  him  classification  it  describes 
the  results  of  observation  and  experiment  thus  far  accu- 
mulated, and  helps  him  to  verify  them  by  experiments  of 
his  own. 

It  is  very  important  to  have  the  scientific  studies  cover 
as  fully  as  possible  all  the  provinces  of  Nature.  1.  There 
is  the  inorganic  province,  containing  the  two  fields  of  as- 
tronomy and  physics  (including  chemistry).  2.  There  is 
the  organic  province,  containing  the  plant  and  the  animal. 
Mr.  Howe,  in  this  work,  has  accordingly  made  his  course  a 
spiral  one,  ascending  from  a  first  cycle  of  lessons  treating 
the  four  aspects  of  nature — 1,  stars  and  earth ;  2,  minerals 
and  rocks;  3,  plants;  4,  animals — to  a  second,  third,  and 
fourth  cycle,  each  adapted  to  a  more  advanced  class  of  pu- 
pils. He  has  taken  great  pains  to  so  grade  the  work  that 
the  pupils  will  be  found  ready  at  each  step  of  progress  to 
take  up  profitably  the  topics  assigned.  His  happy  selec- 
tion of  objects  in  the  four  fields  of  nature  study  here  in- 
troduced insures  the  constant  interest  of  the  pupil ;  but 
the  most  valuable  feature  of  this  book  is  the  detailed  hints 
and  directions  to  the  teacher  and  pupil  that  will  secure 
correct  and  accurate  habits  of  scientific  observation. 

W.  T.  HARRIS. 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  September,  1894. 


AUTHOK'S  PKEFACE. 


ORIGINALLY  prepared  for  Mrs.  Alice  Putnam  and  her 
training  class  in  1879,  these  lessons  have  since  been  used  for 
fourteen  years  in  my  own  classes  and  in  a  modified  form 
presented  many  times  to  the  teachers  of  Chicago  and  else- 
where. Long  urged  to  put  them  in  print,  a  year's  leisure 
has  enabled  me  to  carefully  revise  them,  and  it  is  with  an 
increased  measure  of  confidence  in  their  helpfulness  that 
they  are  now  presented  to  educators. 

The  result  of  this  progressive,  systematic  work  in  science 
has  been  exceedingly  satisfactory.  Interest  has  rarely 
flagged,  and  the  senses  have  been  developed  to  a  surprising 
degree.  The  hand  has  been  trained  in  the  art  of  experi- 
ment, and  the  mental  powers  have  made  a  steady  and 
healthy  growth.  An  exactness  and  freedom  in  expression 
have  been  attained,  and  this  is  the  truest  index  of  a  mind 
full  of  observed  facts,  and  trained  to  the  thoughtful  consid- 
eration of  matters  presented.  The  advanced  pupil  has  gone 
to  the  study  of  books  with  ease  and  profit. 

Such  substantial  results  alone  would  justify  the  time  spent. 

Moral  Influences. — But  this  work  has  reached  deeper  and 
further.  The  inborn  love  of  childhood  for  birds,  flowers, 
and  pretty  stones  has  quickly  responded  to  wise  encourage- 
ment and  become  the  present  source  of  much  happiness,  and 
this  of  the  purest  sort.  Incidentally  tending  to  keep  out 
low  pleasures,  it  has  been  in  many  cases  the  prelude  to  the 
recreations  of  mature  life. 


Xli  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Results  Real. — That  these  fruits  of  science  teaching  are 
not  chimerical,  I  have  the  assurance  of  those  instructors 
under  whom  I  have  been  so  free  to  test  these  plans  of  work ; 
the  words  of  encouragement  from  parents ;  and,  best  of  all, 
the  lives  of  many  pupils.  To  the  advanced  instructors  of 
to-day  the  value  of  science  teaching  is  no  longer  in  question. 
That  with  the  pleasurable  acquiring  of  much  useful  knowl- 
edge, the  senses  can  be  quickened,  the  mental  powers  devel- 
oped, and  a  loving  interest  in  ever-present  and  pure  things  be 
fostered,  which  in  mature  life  shall  render  us  in  a  great  de- 
gree independent  of  time,  place,  or  man's  device  for  needed 
recreation,  is  certainly  all  that  need  be  said  in  its  favor. 

Time  saved  in  the  End.— Not  even  time  is  really  an  ob- 
stacle ;  for  repeated  experience  has  shown  the  ease  and 
rapidity  with  which  physics,  physical  geography,  botany, 
etc.,  have  been  mastered  after  this  elementary  training. 

The  real  trouble  has  lain  in  the  way  teachers  were  taught, 
the  difficulty  of  getting  material,  and  the  haphazard,  aimless 
method  in  which  subjects  were  presented. 

It  is  with  a  sincere  wish  to  smooth  away  some  of  these 
very  real  obstacles,  and  aid  those  who  desire  to  take  up  this 
delightful  line  of  work,  that  I  present  the  results  of  years  of 
study  as  to  the  best  order  of  presentation  and  the  most  easi- 
ly obtained  material  which  would  answer  the  purpose  aimed 
at.  This  has  all  stood  the  test  of  actual  and  repeated  teach- 
ing to  pupils  and  presentation  to  classes  of  teachers  and 
others,  except  the  first  ten  Steps,  which  I  have  worked  out 
at  the  request  of  Col.  F.  W.  Parker,  seconded  by  many 
teachers  of  the  lower  grades. 

Graded  Work  made  possible.— I  have  also  outlined  the 
work  in  such  a  way  as  will  enable  a  teacher  to  begin  where 
his  predecessor  left  off,  with  full  knowledge  of  what  has 
been  done  and  a  definite  plan  of  what  to  do  next  ;  thus 
making  it  possible  that  the  science  work  of  a  school  may  be 
systematic  and  progressive  through  all  the  grades. 

Nor  has  my  thought  been  entirely  of  the  teacher.  Two 
classes  of  children  have  especially  appealed  to  me  : 


AUTHOR'S   PREFACE.  Xlii 

First.  The  children  of  the  country  districts,  who  spend 
their  lives  amid  the  scenes  of  nature  and  yet  in  maturity 
are,  as  Whittier  says, 

"  Blind  to  the  beauty  everywhere  revealed, 
Treading  the  mayflowers  with  regardless  feet ; 
For  them  the  song  sparrow  and  the  bobolink 
Sang  not,  nor  winds  made  music  in  the  leaves ; 
For  them  in  vain  October's  holocaust 
Burned,  gold  and  crimson,  over  all  the  hills, 
The  sacramental  mystery  of  the  woods." 

Not  only  would  untold  happiness  come  into  these  lives  if 
the  love  of  innocent  childhood  for  nature  could  be  fostered 
till  it  broadened  into  the  refining  and  elevating  appreciation 
of  the  men  and  women,  but  the  habits  of  scientific  thought 
and  inquiry  would  mean  wealth  besides. 

Second.  The  children  of  the  city  see  so  little  that  is  natural 
and  so  much  that  is  artificial  that  their  lives,  never  feeling  the 
sweet  influences  which  flow  from  communion  with  flowers, 
trees,  and  birds,  acquire  a  restless,  nervous  mode  of  life  which 
nothing  but  the  saloon,  gambling  table,  and  theater  can  satisfy. 

Even  for  these  much  might  be  done.  By  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  park  authorities  or  special  greenhouses  and  sup- 
ply depots  with  delivery  wagons,  the  teacher  in  the  city 
ward  could  have  the  needed  flowers,  frogs'  eggs,  etc.,  sup- 
plied. Nowhere  else  would  such  lessons  be  more  appreci- 
ated, and  the  effect  of  the  introduction  of  a  few  boxes  of  pots 
with  sprouting  morning-glory  seed,  or  some  pans  of  cray- 
fish or  frogs'^ggs,  in  which  each  "  street  Arab  "  felt  he  had 
a  share,  would  do  wonders  in  the  discipline,  the  work  in 
language  and  drawing,  to  say  nothing  of  the  character. 

To  these  two  classes  especially  has  my  heart  gone  out  in 
a  desire  that,  with  Whittier,  I  might 

"  Invite  the  eye  to  see  and  heart  to  feel 
The  beauty  and  the  joy  within  their  reach- 
Home  and  home  loves,  and  the  beatitudes 
Of  nature  free  to  all." 


xiv  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

To  SUPERINTENDENTS,  SCHOOL   BOARDS,  AND  OTHERS   IN 
AUTHORITY. 

Permit  a  disinterested  student  of  school  methods  to  offer 
some  suggestions  bearing  on  science  work. 

Deal  generously  with  your  Teachers.— Not  only  pay 
them  well,  but  trust  them.  They  will  do  better  work  if 
given  the  freedom  to  do  it  in  their  own  way  ;  and  if  un- 
worthy of  trust,  they  are  unworthy  the  delicate  and  vital 
task  of  molding  the  characters  of  our  children,  and  should 
be  at  once  dismissed. 

If  a  teacher  desires,  or  is  willing,  to  take  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  a  day  for  a  science  lesson,  aid  her  with  the  few 
dishes,  window  boxes,  and  specimens  she  may  need  ;  or, 
better  still,  place  a  small  sum  of  money  at  her  disposal  to 
be  strictly  accounted  for. 

Apparatus. — Never  buy  an  elaborate  set  and  then  seek  a 
teacher  to  use  it.  Teachers  differ,  and  will  reach  the  same 
end  in  a  number  of  ways.  Hence,  secure  your  teacher  and 
let  the  apparatus  he  or  she  can  best  use  be  selected.  Then 
keep  the  teacher  if  satisfactory. 

Be  patient  if  the  teacher  seems  earnest  in  her  work. 
Only  very  weak  things  grow  in  a  day,  and  if  really  good 
work  is  being  done,  the  substantial  results  must  of  necessity 
be  slow  in  appearing.  If  the  children  are  learning  "to 
think  to  a  conclusion,"  if  they  are  becoming  observant,  if 
they  are  interested  in  their  school  and  go  home  full  of  the 
things  they  have  seen  and  done,  do  not  criticise  because 
those  "  things  "  are  "  bugs  and  weeds,"  nor  complain  because 
more  words  are  not  learned  or  arithmetical  problems  solved. 
The  "words"  may  be  meaningless  and  problems  mechan- 
ical, but  active,  willing  seeing  and  thinking  is  in  the  line  of 
all  that  is  desirable. 

Teacher's  Diary. — In  engaging  a  teacher,  have  it  under- 
stood that  a  brief  diary  of  each  subject  taught  shall  be  kept, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  year  there  be  entered  a  complete  list 
of  all  classes,  what  each  had  done  during  the  year,  where 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE.  xv 

they  left  off,  and  what  the  plan  is  for  the  coming  year.  De- 
posit this  in  a  safe  place  for  whoever  has  the  school  next. 
Then,  in  case  the  calamity  and  incident  loss  of  a  change 
of  teachers  falls  upon  your  school,  the  new  one  will  he 
greatly  helped  to  get  her  bearings,  and  at  least  a  month's 
salary  and  progress  be  saved  to  your  school  and  children. 

E.  G.  HOWE. 

CHAMPAIGN,  ILL.,  September,  1893. 


CHART, 

Showing  the  work  of  each  year,  the  relation  of  the  dif- 
ferent steps  to  each  other,  and  brief  suggestions  as  to 
how  science  is  related  to  other  work. 


THE  STARS  AND  EARTH. 
MINERALS  AND   ROCKS. 
PLANTS. 
ANIMALS. 


Read  across  for  each  year's  work  and  down  for  each 
Subject. 

Roman  numerals  always  indicate  steps. 


(xvfi) 


YEAR  OP          A.  THE  STARS 
WORK.  AND  EARTH. 


B.  MINERALS  AND  ROCKS. 


1st.  The  Skies  (general).    II. 

Early  winter.    10  lessons. 


Metals  sorted.    III.    Win- 
ter.   12  lessons. 


2d.  The  Moon.    VII.    Win- 

ter.   10  lessons. 


Minerals     sorted. 
Winter.    15  lessons. 


VIII. 


3d.  The       Earth.         XVI. 

Spring.    20  lessons. 


Minerals  and  Rocks  sorted. 
XIV.    Winter.    15  lessons. 
Pebbles.      XV.      Winter. 


4th.  The  Earth  (continued). 

XXII.     Late  spring.     20 
lessons. 


How  Sharp  Stones  came 
to  be.  XX.  Winter.  25  les- 
sons. 

Plane  Form  and  Color. 
XXI.  Winter.  20  lessons. 


5th.  The       Solar       System. 

XXIV.    Early  winter.    20 
lessons. 


Metals  studied.  XXV. 
Winter.  20  lessons. 

Solid  Form.  XXVI.  Win- 
ter. 15  lessons. 


6th.  Gravitation.  XXX.  Late 

fall.    20  lessons. 


Molecule  Lessons.    XXXI. 
Winter.    60  lessons. 


7th.  Light,  Telescope,  Spec- 

troscope, Laplace.  XXXV. 
Late  fall.    30  lessons. 


Crystals.  XXXVI.  Win- 
ter. 25  lessons. 

Minerals  studied.  XXX  VII. 
Winter.  40  lessons. 


8th. 


The  Early  History  of  the 
Earth.    XLI.   Winter.    30 


Coins.  XLII.  Winter. 
10  lessons. 

Earth  -  making.  XLIII. 
Spring.  40  lessons. 


9th.  Other     Systems      than 

Ours.  XLVI.  All  through 
year.    20  lessons. 


Rocks.    XLVII.    Winter. 
50  lessons. 


xviii 


C7.  PLANTS. 


Z>.  ANIMALS. 


Sorting  Seeds  and  Fruits.  I. 
Autumn.  20  lessons. 

Buds.  IV.  Spring.  15  les- 
sons. 


Eight    Home    Animals.      V. 
Early  summer.    35  lessons. 


Roots  and  Stems.  VI.  Au- 
tumn. 10  lessons. 

Typical  Leaves.  X.  Early 
summer.  15  lessons. 


Twenty-three  Familiar  Ani- 
mals of  Spring  and  Moral  Les- 
sons connected.  IX.  Spring. 
50  lessons. 


Trees.  XII.  Autumn.    121es. 

Woods  and  Barks.  XIII. 
Winter.  15  lessons. 

Flowers.  XVII.  Late  spring. 
25  lessons. 


Thirty-three  Foreign  and  Less 
Familiar  Animals.  XL  Au- 
tumn. 50  lessons. 


Fruits  studied.    XVIII.    Au- 
tumn.   25  lessons. 


Boy  studied.     XIX. 
winter.    50  lessons. 


Early 


The  Life  History  of  One 
Plant.  "  Morning-glory  Les- 
sons." XXIII.  Autumn.  45 
lessons. 


Boy  Study  applied  to  a  Series 
of  Typical  Animals.  XXVII. 
Late  spring.  50  lessons. 


Relationships  of  Plants. 
XXVIII.  Autumn.  30  les- 
sons. 

(To  man,  see  Step  XXXII.) 


Winter  Quarters  of  Animals. 
XXIX.  Late  autumn.  20  les- 
sons. 

Man  at  Home.  XXXII. 
Spring.  40  lessons. 


Winter   Quarters   of   Plants. 
XXXIV.    Autumn.    30  lessons. 


Life     Histories     of     Types. 
XXXVIII.     Late    spring.     40 


Parts  and  Structure  of  Fruits.  Life  Histories  of  Types  (con- 

XXXIX.    Autumn.    20  lessons.  tinned).     XLIV.     Spnng.     40 

Corn  and  Beans.    XL.    Au-  lessons, 
tumn.    25  lessons. 


Important  Families  of  Plants 
at  Sight.  XLV.  Autumn.  25 
lessons. 

Important  Families.  XLIX. 
Late  spring.  25  lessons. 


Animal     Groups. 
Spring.    40  lessons. 


XLVIII. 


xiz 


YEAR  OF    FEELING  AND            HEARING  AND 
WORK.            TOUCH.                        EAR. 

SEEING  AND 
EYE. 

1st. 

Sorting  seeds. 
Animals. 
Sorting  metals. 

Sorting  of  seeds, 
buds,  and  met- 
als. 
Animals. 

2d. 

Minerals. 
Animals. 
Leaves  (surface). 

Roots  and  stems. 
Minerals. 
Leaves. 
Animals. 

3d. 

Woods  and  barks. 
Rocks.                          Animals. 
Pebbles. 

Trees. 
Woods  and  bark. 
Rocks. 
Animals.     Flow- 
ers. 

4th. 

Fruits.                         Boy's  ear. 
Boy  (touch). 

Fruits. 
Boy's  eye. 
Form  (plane). 
The  earth. 

5th. 

Metals. 
Solids.                         Boy  lessons. 
Boy  lessons. 

Morning-glory. 
Metals. 
Solids. 
Boy  lessons  (eyes, 
etc.). 

6th.  Molecules. 

Animal  lessons.  Animal  lessons. 


Collections  made. 


7th. 


8th. 


Crystals. 
Minerals. 
Animal  sensation. 


Light  and  the  eye. 
Crystals  and  min- 
erals (optical). 
Plants. 
Animals. 


9th. 


SMELL. 

TASTE. 

PHYSIOLOGY,  ETC. 

Seeds  and  fruits 
(odors). 
Buds  (odors). 
Animals  (nose). 

Seeds  and  fruits  tasted. 

Buds  tasted. 
Animals  —  food   and 
tongue. 

Boy. 

Roots  and  stems. 
Animals  (nose). 
Leaves  (odor). 

Roots  and  stems  tasted. 
Minerals  —  salt,  etc. 
Animals  —  tongue      and 
food. 
Leaves  tasted. 

Through  animals, 

Trees. 
Woods. 
Rocks  (clay,  etc.). 
Flowers. 

Trees,  woods,  etc. 

Animals  —  tongue      and 
food. 

Through  animals. 

Fruits  (know  by 
smell). 
Boy's  nose. 

Fruits,  by  taste. 

Boy  —  tongue,    and    use 
of. 

Boy  —  use  and  care 
of  parts,  etc. 

M.-glory  (use   of 
odors). 
Metals. 
Boy  lessons. 

Morning-glory. 

Metals. 
Boy  lessons. 

Reproductive 
process      illus- 
trated in  plant 
life. 
Boy  lessons. 

Plants  (odors). 
Man. 

Plants. 
Man. 

Man  (foods). 
Molecules. 
Plants  (poisonous, 
etc.). 

Minerals. 

Minerals. 

Winter    quarters 
of  plants. 
Animals  (compar- 
ative). 

Fruits  as  food. 
Animals. 

Plants. 
Animals. 

YEAR  OF 
WORK. 


COLOR. 


FORM. 


1st.        Seeds  and  f ruits.   Comparison  Seeds  and  fruits. 

with  standard  colors.  Skies. 

Metals  (metallic).  Metals. 

Animals  (comparison).  Buds. 


2d.         Roots  and  stems. 
Minerals. 
Leaves. 
Animals  (use  of,  etc.). 


Roots  and  stems. 

Minerals. 

Leaves. 


3d.        Minerals.  Animals. 

Trees  and  woods.  Trees  (top,  etc.). 

Flowers.  Compare  with  stand-  Pebbles, 

ard.  Flowers. 
Animals. 


4th.       Fruits.    Compare  with  stand- 
ard colors. 
Use  of  colors  in  other  work. 


Fruits.      Variations     in 

form. 
Plane  form. 


5th.       (Advertises,    etc.)     Morning- 
glory. 

Metallic,  in  metals. 
Use,  to  animals. 
Coloring  diagrams,  etc.,  in  all. 


Morning-glory  (a  guide). 
Solids. 


6th.       Plants  and  insects.  Plants. 

Animals  (winter  change).  Molecules. 

Man.  Animals. 


7th.       Winter  quarters  of  plants. 
Minerals. 
Animals. 
Spectroscope,  etc.    (XXXV.) 


Crystals. 
Minerals. 


8th. 


9th. 


zxii 


NUMBER. 


SIZE  AND  WEIGHT. 


Seeds. 
Metals. 
Buds. 
Animals. 


Seeds  (comparison). 
Metals  (relative). 


Moon  (months,  etc.). 
Minerals  (specimens  of  each, 

etc.). 
Leaves. 


Minerals  (relative). 
Leaves  (relative). 


Animals. 

Rocks. 

Flowers. 


Rocks  (relative). 
Pebbles  (relative). 
Trees  (relative). 
Flowers  (relative). 


Fruits. 

Boy. 

Form. 


Fruits  (comparative). 

Boy  (sense  of  weight  cultivated). 

Form  and  metric  measure. 


Morning-glory  (parts,  etc.). 
Solar  system. 

Solids  (measurements,  etc.). 
Boy  lessons. 


Solar  system. 

Metals. 

Solids. 


Gravitation. 
Molecules. 


Gravitation. 

Molecules  (use  of  metric  volume). 


Stars  and  earth. 

Crystals. 

Minerals. 


Crystals. 
Minerals. 


Fruits. 
Coins. 
Earth-making. 


The  earth. 
Coins,  etc. 


Plants. 
Rocks. 
Animals. 


Earth  (specific  gravity,  volume, 

etc.). 
Rocks. 


xxlii 


YEAR  OF 
WORK. 


HAND  TRAINING. 


DRAWING. 


1st.        Seeds  (touch). 

Skies    (sewing    star-groups, 

etc.). 
Metals  (bend,  etc.). 


The  skies. 


2d.         Moon  (pasting  four  phases,        Roots  and  stems. 

etc.). 

Minerals  (hardness,  etc.).  Leaves. 

Leaves  (sew,  mount,  etc.). 


3d. 


Woods. 

Rocks  (labeled). 

The  earth. 


Earth  (diagrams). 
Flowers. 


4th.       Sharp  stones. 
Plane  form. 
The  earth  (charts). 


Fruits. 
Plane  form. 
Boy. 


5th.       Morning-glory    (in    experi- 
ment). 
Metals. 
Solids  made. 


Morning-glory  cards. 
Solar  system  (diagrams). 
Solid  form  and  measure. 


6th.       Gravitation  (experiment).  Plants. 

Molecules  (experiment).  Star  work. 

Arranging  collections. 


7th. 


Plants. 
Star  work. 
Crystals. 
Minerals. 


Winter  quarters  of  plants 

Star  diagrams. 

Life  histories  of  animals. 


8th. 


Fruits. 

Corn  and  beans  lessons. 

Earth. 

Life  histories  of  animals. 


9th. 


Illustrating  plant  families, 
Stars  and  earth  (diagrams). 
Rocks. 
Animal  groups. 


rxiv 


PAINTING.  MODELING. 

Seeds  and  fruits. 
Eggs,  etc.,  of  animals. 


Coloring  sections  of  roots  and        Model  roots. 

stems. 
Leaves.  Leaf  impressions. 


The  earth  (diagrams).  Trees  (peculiarities). 

Animals  (special  points). 
Flowers.  Pebbles. 


Fruits.  Fruits. 

Boy.  Boy  (special  points  of  structure). 

Form.  Sharp  stones. 

Form. 


Cards  and  diagrams  for  morn-        Solar  system. 

ing-glory.  Solids. 

Solar  system. 


Coloring  of  cards  and  drawings.        Winter  quarters  of  animals. 

Man  at  home. 


Coloring  of  all  drawn  work.  Plants  in  winter  quarters. 

Crystals. 


Fruits. 

Colors  in  connection  with  all        Corn  and  beans  lessons, 
illustrating.  Relief  of  the  earth's  surface. 


Rock  formations,  etc. 
Colors  in  connection  with  all 
drawn  work.  Plant  families. 


YEAR  OF 
WORK. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


CHEMISTRY. 


1st.        Map  and  globe  in  sight  and 

constantly  referred  to. 
Points  of  compass,  etc.,  in 
skies. 


Metals  (elements). 
Animals. 


2d.         Observe  moon.  Minerals. 

Locate  all  places  spoken  of.         Animals. 


3d.         Locate  places  on  globe  and 

map. 

The  earth  (longitude,  time). 
Relief  of  land,  etc. 


Animals. 


4th.       Locate  all  places  spoken  of. 
The  earth  (latitude,  seasons). 
Relief  of  land,  etc. 


Sharp  stones. 
Boy  (air,  CO,,  etc.). 


gth.       Locate  places  on  map  and 

globe. 

The  earth  as  a  member  of 
the  solar  system. 


Morning-glory.    C09,  etc. 
Metals.       Candle     flame, 

rusting,  etc. 
Boy  lessons. 


6th. 

Locate  and  read  of  places. 
Gravitation  and  the  tides. 
Man  at  home. 
Distribution  of  plants. 

Plants. 
Molecules. 

7th.       Constant  use  of  maps  and 

globe. 
Distribution      of      mineral 

wealth  shown. 
Climate. 


Winter  Quarters  of  plants. 
Star  work  (spectrum,  etc.). 
Crystals. 
Minerals. 


8th.  Continued  location  of  places. 
History  connected  with  coins. 
Natural  divisions. 


Earth  and  earth-making. 
Plant  lessons. 


9th.       Distribution  of  plants  and 
animals  geographically. 


Rocks. 


xxvi 


PHYSICS. 


IMAGINATION. 


Skies.    (Compare,  etc.) 

Metals  (magnet).    Hardness,  etc. 

Covering  of  buds. 

Animals. 


Skies.    Mental  picturing. 


The  moon. 

Minerals. 

Animals. 


Moon.    Mental  picturing. 


Animals. 

Pebbles.    Barometer,  etc. 

Earth. 


The  description  from  memory 
of  animals,  trees,  etc. 

Mental  picturing  of  the  proc- 
esses in  pebbles,  etc. 


Boy. 

Sharp  stones. 

Light,  heat,  etc.,  in  "the  earth." 


Trying  to  form  mental  concepts 

of  the  earth. 
Sharp  stones.    Mental  pictures 

of  processes,  and  examples. 


Morning-glory.    Experiments. 

Solar  system. 

Metals. 

Boy. 


Concepts  of  other  worlds  than 
ours,  and  their  relations. 

Morning-glory  work  thought 
out. 

Solids. 


Plants. 

Winter  quarters  of  animals. 

Gravitation. 

Molecules. 


Plants.    (Conditions  conceived.) 
Mental  concepts   of  effects  of 

gravitation. 
Work  in  molecular  structure. 


Winter  quarters  of  plants. 
Stars.    (Light,  etc.) 
Crystals. 
Minerals. 


Concise  description  cultivated. 
Concepts  of  light. 
Crystals. 


Fruits.    (Opening,  etc.) 
Star  work. 
Earth  making. 


Generalization  begun. 
Mental  concepts  of  earth's  his- 
tory and  rock  formations. 


Star  work. 
Rock  making. 
Animal  mechanism. 


Generalizations  continued. 
Expansion  of  astronomical  ideas. 
Rock  changes,  etc. 


xxvfi 


YEAR  OF 
WORK. 


LANGUAGE. 


READING. 


1st.  Encourage  the  natural  flow 
of  talk  about  the  objects,  and 
only  correct  gross  errors. 


Read  choice  things  bear- 
ing on  the  work.  "  Black 
Beauty,"  etc.,  to  teach 
kindness  to  animals. 


2d.  Encourage  description  of 
all  objects.  Commend  con- 
ciseness and  clearness,  but 
criticise  very  little. 


Choice  selections  read 
to  class.  Make  connection 
between  the  thing  to  its 
picture,  and  then  "word 
picture." 


3d.  Let  descriptions  become 
more  exact,  and  by  constant 
exercise  train  in  that  direc- 
tion. 


Continue  to  link  the 
object,  its  picture,  and  the 
word. 


4th.  Exact  terms  will  now  be  at 
command.  Encourage  terse- 
ness by  their  use. 


Read  to  pupil,  and  then 
let  him  reread  to  himself. 
Class  begin  lists  of  books 
to  read  under  guidance  of 
teacher. 


5th. 

Morning-glory  cards  ;  signs 
and  colors  as  indicating  cer- 

Stimulate     by      choice 
extracts.      Pupils    reread 

tain  things.    Notes  will  now 

known  stories. 

give  opportunity  for  brief  and 

exact  written  description. 

6th.  Notes  kept.  Use  of  in- 
creased vocabulary  in  descrip- 
tion, definition,  etc. 


Books  of  travel  read.  Sir 
Isaac  Newton's  life.  Lit- 
erature of  missions  to  aid 
in  knowledge  of  man  at 
home. 


7th.  Notes  kept.  Terse  and  ex- 
act description.  Vocabulary 
of  understood  words  in- 
creased. 


Of  Galileo  and  Laplace, 
Sir  William  Thompson, 
etc.  Mineralogies  consult- 
ed. Physics  consulted. 


8th.  Notes  and  description. 
Terse  and  exact  generaliza- 
tion. Mental  concepts  of  phe- 
nomena put  into  words. 


Geologies,  physiogra- 
phies, botanies,  etc.,  con- 
sulted, and  best  ones  rec- 
ommended. Book  on  coins. 


9th.  Training  in  the  compre- 
hensive grasp  of  detail  (ex- 
pressed). Generalize.  Notes, 
etc.,  kept. 

xxviii 


Astronomies,  geologies, 
and  books  on  systematic 
botany  and  zoology  con- 
sulted. Lives  of  Linnaeus 
and  Cuvier.  Ecce  Coelum. 


USE  OF  BOOKS. 


MORALS  AND  CHARACTER. 


Pictures  shown.  Teach 
care  and  neatness  in  use  of ; 
not  to  drop,  tear,  or  soil. 


Self-control  in  care  and  use  of 
specimens,  especially  those  good  to 
eat.  Character  illustrated  by  ani- 
mals. 


Child  find  pictures  to 
match  objects.  Teach  how 
to  cover;  place  for  name, 
etc. 


Self-control,  especially  in  miner- 
als. Kindness  to  animals.  Char- 
acter as  typified  by  animals. 


Continue  to  match  things 
and  pictures  in  books  on  sci- 
ence, etc. 


Animals ;  continue  to  note  the 
desirable  traits.  Self-control  in 
care  of  specimens. 


Match  things  with  cuts 
and  read  descriptions.  Teach 
child  how  to  gather  and  care 
for  his  personal  library. 


Self-control  in  fruits.  Boy.  The 
earth.  Inspiration  of  great  sub- 
jects and  vast  distances,  etc. 


Consult  for  information. 
Teach  use  of  index  and 
glossary. 


Morning-glory.  Emphasize  the 
beauty  and  wonder  of  plant  repro- 
duction. Neatness  in  notes  and 
drawing.  Honesty  in  care  of  speci- 


Use  of  maps  and  charts 
taught.  Gazetteer  and  sim- 
ple encyclopaedia  explained 
and  used. 


Care  and  neatness  in  drawing 
and  coloring,  notes,  etc.  Exactness 
and  thought  through  experiment- 
ing. Reverence  through  gravita- 
tion. The  brotherhood  of  man. 


Dictionary  used  to  define. 
Use  of  marginal  and  foot 
notes.  Concordance,  etc., 
taught. 


Neatness  and  care  in  notes,  etc. 
Advance  in  knowledge  of  repro- 
ductive functions  through  animal 
development. 


Extend  knowledge  of  de- 
sirable books.  Show  how  to 
catalogue  a  library  and  to 
keep  list  of  loaned  books. 


With  the  gradual  unfolding  of 
the  wonderful  and  sublime  in  nat- 
ure should  be  a  deepening  sense  of 
the  power  and  wisdom  of  the  Crea- 


Teach  how  to  make  some 
sort  of  card  catalogue  of 
topics.  Use  Dictionary  of 
Authors  and  Familiar  Quo- 
tations, etc. 


tor,  and  the  majesty  of  seemingly 
puny  man.  In  the  light  of  revela- 
tion this  should  develop  into  rev- 
erence and  love  to  God. 

xxix 


SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


INTRODUCTION. 

GUIDING  PRINCIPLES. 

Certain  principles  have  governed  me  in  this  work,  a 
statement  of  which  will  throw  light  on  the  why  and  where- 
for  of  what  follows  : 

1.  A  child  can  he  led  to  any  height  if  the  steps  are  made 
short  enough. 

2.  The  mental  powers  must  have  exercise  to  grow. 

3.  The  senses  are  capable  of  cultivation,  and  will  then  in- 
crease our  "correspondences." 

4.  The  mind  derives  its  ideas  from  the  perceptions  of  the 
senses. 

5.  Ideas  (i.e.,  suggestions)  will  manifest  themselves  in 
corresponding  words  and  actions,  or,  as  "seed  thoughts," 
develop  into  new  and  original  discoveries  and  inventions. 

6.  Feeding. — Childhood  is  the  time  to  grow  and  fill  up. 
In  this  stage  the  pupil  should  see  and  handle. 

7.  Assimilation.— In  youth  the  more  mature  brain  is  able 
to  act  upon  the  gathered  material  of  childhood,  systematize, 
correlate,  reason,  and  deduce.     Pupils  should  be  guided  to 
experiment  and  observation. 

8.  Reproduction. — Maturity  (as  to  its  character)  will  be 
largely  based  on  the  resultants  of  (a)  the  accumulations  of 
the  child  ;  (b)  the  deductions  of  youth.    Pupils  should  now 
be  led  to  subjects  involving  generalizations. 

9.  The  value  of  first  impressions  is  so  great  that  every 
care  should  be  exercised  to  make  them  clear  and  accurate. 

3  0) 


2  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

10.  To  te  £xea,  impressions  must  be  repeated. 

11.  Things  must  be  seen  from  different  standpoints  and 
in  varied  relations.    .Let  the  repeating  involve  this  and  be 
a  new  view  as  well  as  a  review. 

12.  No  subject  is  so  profound  but  its  central  truths  can 
be  taught  to  very  small  children. 

13.  These  u  central  truths  "  will  become  u  seed  thoughts," 
developing  naturally  with  the  child's  growth,  and  serving 
as  centers  of  attraction  for  related  facts. 

14.  Work  from  the  simplest,  the  general— and  that  with- 
in the  child's  experience — to  the  complex,  particular,  and 
unknown  or  unobserved. 

15.  Tell  nothing  which  can  be  taught  in  any  other  way. 
Do  nothing  for  the  child  that  he  can  do  for  himself. 

Hence,  in  the  work  which  follows,  I  have  endeavored  to — 

1.  Get  the  child  to  see  and  handle  a  wisely  chosen  and 
comprehensive  series  of  stones,  plants,  and  animals. 

2.  Lead  to  closer  observation,  and  thus  increase  his  ac- 
quaintance. 

3.  Cultivate  the   powers  of  decision   and   still  further 
widen  the  range  of  his  acquaintance. 

4.  Systematize  and  observe  the  relation  of  things  to  each 
other. 

Guided  by  these  principles,  I  have  arranged  the  work  in 
science  under  four  heads,  as  shown  in  the  following  outline. 
The  relation  of  these  topics  to  each  other,  and  the  school 
work  in  general,  is  shown  in  the  chart. 

A.  THE  STARS  AND  EARTH. 
An  Outline  of  Work,  and  Reasons  for  the  Same. 

1.  A  general  look  at  the  skies,  to  introduce  the  subject 
(II).* 

Learn  some  star  groups  which  can  always  be  seen,  and 
their  story  in  myth. 

*  Roman  numerals  refer  to  the  Step. 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

2.  The  Moon. — Our  nearest  neighbor,  and  an  easily  ob- 
served type  of  the  earth.     Her  light,  shape,  motions,  phases, 
the  months,  etc.  (VII). 

Some  star  groups  seen  early  on  summer  evenings  and 
their  stories. 

3.  The  Earth. — An  application  of  the  study  of  the  moon. 
Shape,  daily  motion,  time,  longitude  and  its  use,  eclipses, 
etc.  (XVI). 

Easily  observed  constellations  of  spring  and  their  stories 
in  myth. 

4.  The  Earth. — A  continuation  of  3.     Her  annual  mo- 
tion, the    seasons,  latitude   and    its    use,  the    zodiac,  etc. 
(XXII). 

Six  constellations  of  the  zodiac  learned  and  their  stories 
in  myth,  etc. 

5.  The  Earth's  Family  Relations.— Sun,  planets,  comets, 
etc.     Their  relative  distance  and  size.     The  speed  of  light, 
etc.  (XXIV). 

The  remaining  six  constellations  of  the  zodiac  and  their 
stories. 

6.  Gravitation. — How  these  rapidly  moving  bodies  are 
held  together.     Newton.     The  study  of  a  sublime  generali- 
zation, which  also  supplements  the  work  on  molecules,  etc. 
Tides,  falling  stars,  etc.  (XXX). 

The  constellations  and  story  of  the  Argonauts. 

7.  More  Light  needed. — The  six  preceding  points  have 
brought  us  to  where  the  eye  needs  help.     The  study  of  light, 
mirrors,  lenses,  and  the  telescope  (XXXV). 

Some  things  the  telescope  reveals.  What  the  spectro- 
scope adds.  Nebulae  and  the  theory  of  Laplace.  Constel- 
lations and  story  of  Perseus. 

8.  The  Earth's  Early  History.— Application  of  the  theory 
of  Laplace  to  the  study  of  the  earth's  form,  motions,  sur- 
face, rocks,  etc.,  preparing  for  the  succeeding  steps  on  earth- 
making  and  rocks  (XLI). 

Use  of  telescopes  and  star  maps  to  add  to  knowledge  of 
heavens. 


4  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

9.  Other  Systems  than  ours.— To  extend  and  widen  the 
grand  conceptions  of  astronomy  by  study  of  parallax ;  dis- 
tances of  sun,  moon,  and  some  other  suns  and  systems 
(XLVI). 

Continue  work  with  glass  and  maps,  star  lanterns,  etc., 
to  fix  the  interest. 

B.  THE  MINERAL  KINGDOM. 
An  Outline  of  Work,  and  Reasons  for  the  Same. 

1.  Metals  sorted.— Many  are  already  known  to  the  child, 
and  they  make  the  simplest  starting  point.     Prepare  for  2, 
8,  12,  and  13  (III). 

2.  Minerals  sorted.— More  difficult  than  metals,  and  pre- 
pare for  3  and  12  (VIII). 

3.  Bocks  and  Minerals  sorted. — An  advance  in  work 
and  new  ideas  (XIV). 

Lead  to  and  prepare  for  14  and  15. 

These  lessons  (1,  2,  and  3)  will  have  given  the  child  a 
chance  to  see  and  handle  a  well-selected  and  typical  set  of 
material.  Now  proceed  to  narrow  and  intensify  the  obser- 
vation. 

4.  Pebbles,  and  how  they  came  to  be.     The  work  of 
moving  water.     Earth  sculpture,  etc.    Lead  to  and  prepare 
for  5,  6,  and  14  (XV). 

5.  How  Sharp  Stones  are  made,  by  Roots.— The  power 
of  vegetable  growth.      Continues  4  and  prepares  for  14 
(XX). 

6.  Sharp  Stones,  by  Frost. — Power  of  expanding  water. 
Continues  5,  introduces  to  simple  experimenting,  and  leads 
to  10,  11,  and  14  (XX). 

7.  Plane  Figures  and  Color.— This  is  required  for  the 
work  in  crystals,  etc.     The  metric  measure  alone  should  be 
used  to  familiarize  the  pupils  with  this  beautiful  and  scien- 
tific system  (XXI). 

8.  Metals  studied. — Review  of  1;   introduce  more  per- 
sonal experiment  and  its  recording.     Prepare  for  10,  12,  and 
13  (XXV). 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

9.  Solid  Form.— To  prepare  the  way  for  11,  etc.  (XXVI). 

10.  Molecule  Lessons.— To  give  clear  and  correct  con- 
cepts in  physical  matters ;  advance  in  art  of  experimenting 
and  prepare  the  way  for  11,  14,  and  15  (XXXI). 

11.  Crystals. — An  addition  to  the  work  of  sharp  stones 
by  frost  (6)  and  preparation  for  minerals  (12)  and  rocks  (14 
and  15)  (XXXVI). 

12.  Minerals  studied.— Addition  to  2  and  3,  application 
of  9,  10,  and  11,  and  preparation  for  14  and  15.     Exceed- 
ingly valuable  in  strengthening  the  powers   of   decision 
(XXXVII). 

13.  Coins.— Completes  work  on  metals  (1  and  8)  and  con- 
nects with  man  (XLII). 

14.  Earth-making. — Other  ways  of  making  sharp  stones 
(5  and  6),  and  how  the  continents  are  leveled  and  sculptured 
and  material  for  sediments  made.     Application  and  compre- 
hensive review  of  molecules  (10),  and  all  physics.    Prepara- 
tion for  14  (XLIII). 

15.  Rock  lessons.— A  continuation  of  earth-making  (14) 
and  completion  of  a  systematic  and  experimental  study  of 
the  mineral  kingdom  (XL VII). 

C.  PLANTS. 
An  Outline  of  Work,  and  Reasons  for  the  Same. 

(a)  A  WIDE  ACQUAINTANCE  WITH  SPECIMENS. 

1.  To  see  and  handle  typical  seeds  and  dry  fruits  of  au- 
tumn (I). 

2.  To  see  and  handle  typical  buds  of  spring  (IV). 

3.  To  see  and  handle  stems  and  roots  of  autumn  (VI). 

4.  To  see  and  handle  leaves  of  late  spring  (X). 

5.  To  see  and  know  common  trees.     The  longevity  of 
plants  (XII). 

6.  To  know  woods  and  barks.    A  winter  study  (XIII). 

7.  To  see  and  handle  typical  flowers.     Spring  (XVII). 

8.  To  see  and  handle  typical  fruits.     Autumn  (XVIII). 


6  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

(b)  CLOSER  STUDY  AND  THE  USE  OF  GROANS  AND  PRODUCTS. 

9.  The  life  history  of  one  plant  (morning-glory).     More 
exact  work  and  experimental  testing  begun  (XXIII). 

10.  Relationships  of  plants  to  each  other,  animals,  earth, 
air,  etc.    A  comprehensive  review  in  new  relations  and  to 
aid  in  knowledge  of  the  earth  (XXVIII). 

(For  the  relations  of  plants  to  man,  see  Step  XXXII.) 

(e)  RxflTUDT  OF  PARTS  UNDER  NEW  CIRCUMSTANCES. 

11.  Winter  quarters  of  plants.     A  study  of  the  provi- 
sions  the    plant  makes    for    renewed   life   in  the  spring 
(XXXIV). 

12.  Completes  the  review  (under  a  new  phase)  of  ear- 
lier steps  by  a  more  exact  study  of  the  fruits  of  autumn 
(XXXIX). 

(d)  CLASSIFICATION. 

13.  Corn  and  beans.    A  discovery  through  study  of  mate- 
rial of  some  of  the  leading  points  on  which  classification  is 
based  (XL). 

14.  To  learn  the  peculiarities  of  some  important  families 
of  plants  and  know  them  at  sight.    Application  of  all  pre- 
vious work  (XLV). 

15.  Continues  the  learning  to  know  important  families 
of  plants  at  sight  (XLIX). 

D.  ANIMALS. 
An  Outline  of  Work. 

(a)  SEE  AND  OBSERVE. 

1.  Step  V.— Make  the  acquaintance  of  a  few  house  ani- 
mals.   Series  of  types  in  descending  order  from  best  known 
(boy).     Teach  lessons  in  morals  by  emphasizing  good  traits. 

2.  Step  IX. — Make  the   acquaintance  of   twenty-three 
native  animals  of  the  spring  and  early  summer.     Moral  les- 
sons continued. 

3.  Step  XI.— Make  the  acquaintance  of  thirty-three  for- 
eign or  less  familiar  animals,  widely  distributed  geograph- 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

ically,  to  aid  in  correct  mental  concepts  of  different  portions 
of  the  earth.     Moral  lessons. 

(b)  LEAD  TO  CLOSER  OBSERVATION. 

4.  Step  XIX. — Careful  study  of  the  best-known  animal 
— a  boy.     Simple  lessons  in  physiology  and  hygiene. 

5.  Step  XXVII.— Application  of  what  was  learned  of  the 
boy  to  the  study  of  a  series  of  types. 

(c)  ANIMALS  IN  KELATION  TO  SURROUNDINGS. 

6.  Step  XXIX. — Study  of  relations  to  weather  and  food 
under  Winter  Quarters.     For  their  relation  to  plants,  see 
Step  XXVHI. 

7.  Step  XXXII. — Man;  geographical  distribution,  food, 
etc.     To  add  new  and  correct  concepts  of  different  parts  of 
the  earth,  and  man's  relations  to  his  surroundings. 

(d)  DEVELOPMENT. 

8.  Step  XXXVIII. — Life  histories  of  some  common  types, 
beginning  with  the  lowest  and  working  up. 

9.  Step  XLIV. — Life  histories  continued. 

(e)  CLASSIFICATION. 

10.  Step  XLVIIL— By  the  study  of  specimens  lead  to  the 
recognition  of  the  affinity  of  the  various  groups. 


STEP  L— PLANTS. 
SORTING  OP  SEEDS  AND  DRY  FRUITS. 

Object.— To  see  and  handle  wisely  selected  botanical 
material. 

To  exercise  sight,  touch,  and  smell. 

To  introduce  ideas  of  size,  weight,  etc. 

To  introduce  color. 

Time. — The  autumn  will  be  best,  as  material  is  then 
abundant.  About  twenty  lessons  of  fifteen  minutes  each,  at 
such  time  of  the  daily  session  as  the  pupils  need  relaxation. 

Material. — Gather  as  wide  a  range  of  specimens  as  can 
be  procured,  and  keep  in  the  stout  bags  that  seedsmen  use. 
If  these  have  the  bright  pictures  of  the  contents  on  them,  as 
is  now  common,  each  will  be  readily  known  when  wanted. 
Place  the  bags  in  a  deep  mouse-proof  box,  and  in  such  order 
as  to  be  readily  found. 

The  best  way  to  procure  these  specimens  will  be  to  begin 
the  term  before,  and  let  the  pupils  hunt  them  up  and  fill 
the  bags  for  you.  Next  best  is  to  do  it  yourself.  If  both 
of  these  ways  are  impossible,  send  the  list  to  some  reliable 
seedsman,  and,  telling  just  what  you  want  the  seeds  for,  ask 
him  to  send  "oW,"  or  mixed,  seed  as  far  as  possible,  and 
omit  any  which  may  be  very  expensive. 

The  following  list  is  from  my  own  collection : 

FRUITS  (90  of  each). 

Ash  tree.  Black  walnut, )  with  dried 

Bean  pods.  Butternut,        )    flesh  on. 

Barley  (grains).  Corn  (grains  of)— Sweet. 

Buckwheat.  Black  (Mexican). 

Bur  ("  clot  ")•  Yellow  (dent). 


STEP  I.— PLANTS. 


9 


Corn— White  (dent). 

Red  (field). 

Striped  (field). 

Flint  (yellow). 

Pop  (various  kinds). 
Elm  tree. 
Four-o'clock. 
Maple  (red  and  sugar). 
Negundo  (ash-leaved  maple). 
Oats. 


Peanut  (pods). 
Pepper  (whole  black). 
Pea  pods. 
Rice  (whole). 
Rye  (grains). 
Sunflower— Black. 

Striped. 

Spinach  (prickly). 
Wheat  (grains). 
(29  in  all.) 


IMPERFECT  FRUITS  (120  of  each). 
These  are  less  than  fruits  and  more  than  seed. 


Hickory  nuts. 
Hazelnuts. 
Filherts. 
Pignuts. 
Pecan  nuts. 
Prune  stones. 
Plum  stones. 
Peach  stones. 

(18  in  all.) 


Acorns — Red  oak. 

Black  oak. 

White  oak. 

Burr  oak. 

Water  oak. 
Almonds. 
Apricot  stones. 
Beechnuts. 
Cherry  stones. 
Chestnuts. 

SEEDS  (150  of  each). 

Beans— White    (lima,    case-    Castor  beans. 

knife,  and  common). 
Black  (wax). 
Brown  (Mohawk). 
Yellow  (early  six  weeks). 
Purple  (Gallega  or  cham- 
pion bush). 

Speckled     (red      valen- 
tine). 

Red  eye  (China). 
Canna. 
Apple. 
Brazil  nuts. 


Cotton  seed. 

Coffee  (whole  and  unroasted). 
Cucumber,  or  muskmelon. 
Chocolate  beans. 
Date  seed. 
Hemp. 

Iris,  or  gladioli. 
Lentils. 

Morning-glory. 
Orange. 

Peas — blue       and      smooth 
(Alaska). 


JO  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Peas— Yellow     (First      and  Pinon  nut. 

Best).  Squash. 

Green      and     wrinkled  Salsify. 

(American  Wonder).  Watermelon  (black-seeded). 
Black-eyed  (marrowfat).  (white-seeded). 

Sweet.  (sculptured-seeded). 

Pumpkin.  (35  in  all.) 

A  collection  of  the  entire  fruits  found  under  u  Imperfect 
Fruits "  and  "Seeds"  should  be  made  and  arranged  with 
neat  labels  in  some  case,  that  the  children  may  see  and 
learn  what  has  been  removed.  They  will  delight  to  aid  in 
forming  this,  and  gain  much  in  interest  and  knowledge. 

This  list  can  be  easily  increased,  while  those  difficult  to 
procure  can  be  omitted. 

Trays  and  Boxes. — I  have  always  used  cardboard  trays, 
12  inches  square  and  2  inches  deep.  Both  tray  and  cover 
were  strengthened  at  the  corners  with  cloth  and  covered 
with  a  dark  bronze  paper,  as  this  wore  well.  These  by  the 
100  cost  5  cents  each.  The  little  boxes  to  go  in  these  larger 
trays  were  either  2f  inches  square  or  2f  x  2,  and  all  i  inch 
deep,  bound  on  the  edge  with  green  paper,  and  cost  $5  per 
1,000.  These  made  movable  partitions  in  the  tray,  so  that 
one  or  more  could  be  lifted  out  with  their  contents  or  be  re- 
arranged as  desired.  Of  the  larger  25,  and  of  the  smaller 
30,  filled  the  tray. 

Substitutes. — Many  things  will  suggest  themselves  where 
these  can  not  be  had.  Shallow  boxes  or  box  covers  large 
enough  to  hold  20  to  30  small  boxes  will  do  well,  and  for 
these,  pill,  pen,  match,  screw  boxes  can  be  used,  or  other 
small  boxes  might  be  made  by  the  pupils. 

Each  pupil  will  need  a  tray  and  20  or  30  boxes. 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher.— Having  procured  the  mate- 
rial and  arranged  it  so  that  the  wanted  thing  can  be  at  once 
found,  I  would  advise  trying  the  following  lessons.  No 
matter  how  simple  the  lessons  may  seem,  it  is  never  safe  to 
give  them  without  having  previously  gone  over  the  ground, 


STEP  I.— PLANTS.  H 

as  unexpected  difficulties  frequently  arise,  and  the  experience 
places  the  teacher  in  closer  sympathy  with  the  work  of  the 
pupil. 

The  Lessons. — Long  experience  in  the  use  of  mixed  speci- 
mens for  sorting  has  taught  the  great  value  of  this  exercise. 
In  no  other  way  have  my  pupils  gained  so  fast  or  so  clearly 
shown  their  individual  needs.  Brought  into  actual  con- 
tact with  the  material,  exercising  all  the  senses  but  hearing, 
thrown  on  their  own  responsibility  as  to  the  work,  with  the 
result  so  obviously  correct  or  incorrect,  and  the  errors  so 
easily  made  fruitful  of  gain,  I  can  imagine  no  more  power- 
ful educational  weapon.  Furthermore,  the  ease  with  which 
the  teacher  can  handle  quite  a  large  class  ;  the  durability  of 
the  outfit  when  once  made ;  and  last,  but  by  no  means  least, 
the  opportunity  for  drill  in  self-control  (not  to  eat  or  keep 
specimens)  and  honesty,  are  points  in  its  favor.  Many  ways 
of  giving  these  lessons  will  present  themselves  to  the  expe- 
rienced teacher.  The  following  has  worked  well : 

Plan  of  Work. — There  will  be  a  gain  in  presenting  the 
subject  thus  : 

1.  Sort  5  fruits  of  trees  (3  of  each). 

2.  Sort  10  grains  (3  of  each). 

3.  Sort  10  other  fruits  (3  of  each). 

4.  A  talk  about  fruits. 

5.  15  food  seeds  (5  of  each),  sorted. 

6.  10  other  seeds  (5  of  each),  sorted. 

7.  Talk  about t seeds. 

8.  All  imperfect  fruits  (4  of  each),  sorted. 

9.  Why  not  fruits  f 

10.  Why  not  seeds  1 

11.  Chicken  game*:  6  of  each  fruit,  10  of  each  seed,  and 
8  of  each  imperfect  fruit. 

12.  Gardener  game :  same  assortment  as  11. 

13.  Squirrel  game :  peanuts,  beans,  etc. 

14.  Blindman  game:  large  and  peculiar  specimens. 

*  Explained  beyond. 


12  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

In  giving  these  out,  two  things  must  be  guarded  against 
—first,  that  the  number  given  of  any  one  kind  be  suited 
to  the  capacity  of  the  trays,  and  second,  that  the  teacher 
know  how  many  of  each  the  pupil  should  return.  Hence, 
in  the  individual  work  I  have  suggested  3  of  fruits,  5  of 
seeds,  and  4  of  imperfect  fruits  ;  and  for  general  work 
(games)  these  numbers  doubled  (10,  8,  and  6).  With  a  pri- 
vate key  like  this  the  teacher  can  tell  at  a  glance  whether 
all  of  any  class  of  specimens  have  been  returned  or  found, 
and  still  leave  most  pupils  in  enough  uncertainty  to  secure 
that  careful  inspection  of  the  material  which  is  so  desirable. 

A  day  or  two  before  the  time  has  come  to  begin  the 
series  of  lessons,  invite  (as  a  reward)  several  reliable  pupils 
to  aid  you  in  getting  ready.  Suppose  there  are  30  in  the 
class.  Spread  30  trays  about  the  room,  and  in  each  have 
22  small  boxes  placed.  Write  the  names  of  the  30  pupils 
on  30  cards  or  sheets  of  paper.  Place  30  boxes  on  a  table, 
and  giving  the  ash  fruits  to  one  child,  let  him  or  her  put  3 
in  each  of  the  30  boxes,  and,  returning,  look  in  each  to  be 
sure  it  is  done.  Let  the  red-maple  fruits  be  distributed  in 
the  same  way  by  a  second,  the  sugar-maple  fruits  by  a  third, 
the  elm  fruits  by  a  fourth,  and  the  black  walnuts  by  a  fifth. 
Each  box  or  pile  will  now  have  15  specimens  in  it.  Place 
one  of  these  collections  in  each  of  the  30  trays. 

Lay  out  a  second  30  boxes,  and  in  each  have  the  30 
"grains"  placed  (3  each  of  10  kinds),  and  put  these  in  a 
large  tray  ready  to  give  out  when  the  5  tree  fruits  are 
sorted. 

In  30  other  boxes  put  the  30  u  other  fruits  "  (3  each  of  10 
kinds),  and  you  are  ready  for  the  class  to  begin. 

On  the  morrow  have  a  talk  with  the  class.  Tell  them 
that  some  of  these  specimens  are  good  to  eat,  and  ask  how 
many  think  they  can  do  as  they  want  to  and  not  eat  or 
break  them.  Speak  of  the  value  of  self-control,  and  that 
this  is  one  important  lesson  to  be  learned  from  the  sorting. 
Offer — it  will  not  be  accepted — to  excuse  any  who  feel  they 
are  too  young  or  weak  to  resist  the  temptation. 


STEP  I.— PLANTS.  13 

Then  tell  them  what  to  do. 

1.  Sort  the  tree  fruits  into  boxes.    When  done,  raise 
hand.    If  correct, 

2.  Sort  grains  into  other  boxes,  and  raise  hand.   If  correct, 

3.  Sort  other  fruits,  and  raise  hand. 

4.  Return  tray  with  25  boxes  of  25  kinds  of  fruits  to 
teacher,  who  will  then  know  whether  the  eyes  have  been 
sharp,  the  fingers  accurate,  and  the  child  able  to  control 
itself. 

Give  out  the  30  trays  with  the  5  mixed  tree  fruits  in 
them.  Tray  of  grains  on  arm,  pass  among  the  busy  pupils, 
and  when  one  has  finished  a  glance  will  tell  whether  he 
has  3  fruits  in  each  of  5  boxes. 

If  correct,  compliment  him,  and  give  the  10  grains  to 
sort.  If  not  correct,  suggest  where  (not  what)  the  mistake 
is,  and  let  him  try  again.  Some  tact  will  be  needed  to  keep 
up  the  courage  of  a  pupil  under  repeated  mistakes,  but  in 
no  case  let  him  feel  he  can  depend  on  your  doing  it  for 
him;  but  by  easy  steps  lead  him  to  feel  the  pleasure  of 
self -achievement  and  learn  to  rely  on  himself.  Above  all 
things,  do  not  let  the  pupils  help  one  another ;  but  show 
how  it  is  the  worst  kind  of  robbery  for  one  to  take  from 
another  the  chance  to  grow  in  skill  and  knowledge. 

Thus  let  the  work  go  on,  each  for  him  or  her  self,  till 
time  for  the  lesson  to  close.  Give  each  the  card  with  name 
to  lay  in  the  top  of  the  tray,  and  have  these  gathered  by 
rows  and  in  order,  so  as  to  be  quickly  and  correctly  returned 
at  the  next  lesson.  Meanwhile,  store  them  where  no  tam- 
pering will  be  possible.  Continue  the  sorting  the  next 
lesson,  till  the  first  tray  of  25  fruits  is  completed.  Then  re- 
ceive the  tray  from  the  pupil  and  inspect  it  in  his  presence. 

Do  not  spare  commendation  if  all  the  specimens  are 
there  and  correctly  placed,  especially  dwelling  on  his  self- 
control  and  skill.  Bequest  him  to  take  a  peanut  pod  and 
walnut  to  see  how  curiously  the  seeds  are  fixed  inside,  and 
notice  the  taste. 

If  anything  is  wrong,  tell  the  child  that  he  can  come 


14  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

privately  and  tell  you  about  it,  and  set  the  tray  aside  till 
such  time.  With  young  children  gathered  in  a  room  to- 
gether there  will  always  be  accidental  losing,  interference  of 
mates,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  possible  error  of  those  who  counted 
out  the  specimens ;  hence  I  would  advise  in  such  cases — 

1.  The  private  chance  to  tell  his  story. 

2.  Prompt  and  hearty  acceptance  of  it. 

3.  A  written  record  made  in  his  presence. 

4.  A  chance  to  prove  his  innocence  by  sorting  another 
box. 

No  one  knows  better  than  I  the  trouble  and  thought  this 
plan  involves;  nor  do  any  know  better  how  well  it  pays. 

Such  things  are  the  turning  points  in  a  child's  life. 
Dare  we  neglect  them?  Let  the  little  urchin  who  ate  his 
peanuts  and  told  you  a  lie  about  it  find  that  you  accept  his 
word,  and  there  is  not  one  in  ten  thousand  who  will  fail  to 
exercise  self-control  the  second  trial,  when  your  glad  com- 
mendation will  be  such  a  delightful  (and  possibly  unique) 
sensation  that  he  will  want  to  feel  it  again,  and  never  will 
forget  it. 

The  talk  about  fruits  will  depend  for  its  character  upon 
the  teacher,  and  should  only  aim  to  connect  the  material 
with  the  daily  life  of  the  child. 

Where  have  you  seen  this  before  ?  What  is  its  use  ?  etc., 
would  be  in  the  line  of  my  thought. 

One  point  to  be  emphasized  is  that  the  term  "  fruit "'  is 
appropriate  only  for  the  entire  ripened  pistil. 

It  matters  not  whether  the  protecting  walls  adhere 
tightly  to  the  seed,  as  in  the  "  grains "  of  corn  and  wheat, 
or  are  loose,  as  in  the  maple  and  sunflower;  whether  bare, 
like  the  bean  pod,  or  surrounded  by  protecting  parts,  like 
the  acorns  (cup),  nuts  (bur  or  shuck),  or  stone  fruits  (peach 
and  plum) — if  all  of  a  mature  pistil  and  adhering  parts  is 
present,  we  have  a  fruit. 

Seeds.— Having  talked  of  fruits  and  put  them  away,  pro- 
ceed to  sort  seeds  in  two  lots — "  food  "  seeds  and  u  general " 
seeds.  Give  5  of  each  kind. 


STEP  I.— PLANTS.  15 

Talk  on  Seeds.— This  will  be  like  that  on  fruits;  only 
the  class  can  now  see  how  the  protecting  parts  have  been 
stripped  away,  by  comparing  their  specimens  with  the  col- 
lection suggested  under  the  list  of  seeds. 

Imperfect  Fruits.— Sort  and  talk  of  in  the  same  way. 
Give  only  4  of  each  kind,  as  many  are  large. 

Why  these  are  "  imperfect "  can  be  readily  seen : 

Why  not,  seed  can  be  shown  by  opening  some  of  the 
hard  walls  of  nut  or  stone  and  showing  the  real  "  seed " 
inside. 

The  class  will  now  have  gained  much  real  training  and 
knowledge  in  a  very  enjoyable  way.  To  further  fix  this, 
take  up 

The  Chicken  Game.— In  a  good-sized  tray  put  6  of  each 
fruit,  10  of  each  seed,  and  8  of  each  incomplete  fruit.  Mix 
these  well,  and  put  handf  uls  in  enough  trays  so  that  all  can 
easily  get  at  them.  Have  a  tray  with  one  of  each  sort  in  it, 
and  after  telling  how  some  chickens  or  birds  like  one  thing 
and  some  another,  let  the  pupils  come  one  by  one  and  choose 
a  seed  or  fruit  from  the  sample  tray,  and  name  it  as  what 
they  "  like  best " ;  then  go  and  find  all  those  like  it  in  the 
trays  about  the  room.  If  they  bring  back  the  full  number, 
let  them  choose  another  to  gather.  If  not,  have  them  look 
again. 

When  all  have  been  gathered,  mix  them  again  for 

The  Gardener's  Game.— Speak  of  how  the  gardener  plants 
only  one  thing  in  a  place,  here  peas,  there  beans,  etc.  "  I 
am  a  gardener,  and  have  unfortunately  mixed  all  my  seeds. 
Who  will  help  me  separate  them  ? "  Let  each  choose  from 
the  trays  some  one  fruit  or  seed  and  bring  it  to  you.  Hav- 
ing told  the  name  (or,  if  not  known,  been  told  it),  let  him 
go  and  gather  the  rest  as  before. 

When  all  have  been  gathered,  place  the  boxes  in  a  large 
tray  ready  to  put  back  into  the  bags. 

Squirrel  Game.— Shell  some  freshly  roasted  peanuts  till 
you  have  75  to  100  nuts,  and  wrap  these  separately  in  little 
papers.  Take  an  equal  number  of  common  beans  about  the 


16  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

same  size  and  wrap  these  in  similar  papers,  being  careful  to 
keep  them  away  from  the  scent  of  the  peanuts.  Tell  the 
children  how  squirrels  hide  piles  of  nuts,  and  how  they  nose 
about  in  the  leaves  after  others,  finding  them  by  smell  rather 
than  sight,  and  propose  u  we  play  squirrel.'1  Now  distribute 
the  beans  about  the  room  or  yard,  or  keep  in  a  tray.  Then 
do  the  same  with  the  peanuts.  Now  let  each  child,  without 
touching,  choose  one  of  these  packages.  When  all  have 
done  so,  let  them  be  opened  to  see  who  smelled  right,  but  in 
no  case  to  eat  till  you  say  so.  Seat  any  who  do  eat  (as  the 
flavor  in  the  mouth  will  interfere  with  the  smelling),  and 
let  the  others  try  again  till  they  think  all  the  peanuts  have 
been  gathered.  Then  let  the  children  report  their  success 
or  failure  by  filing  past  the  teacher  and  showing  what  they 
have.  Take  the  beans  and  let  them  eat  the  nuts. 

Vary  this  by  using  pieces  of  butternut,  black  walnut,  or 
other  rank-smelling  nut  in  place  of  the  peanuts. 

Vary  again  by  using  peanuts  in  one  set  of  papers  and 
some  other  nut  in  the  other.  Let  each  choose  two  or  three 
of  some  given  kind  and  open  before  you.  All  mistaken 
nuts  must  be  given  up ;  others  they  can  eat. 

Blindman's  Game.— Select  a  lot  of  the  larger  fruits  and 
seeds  and  place  in  a  bag.  The  class  will  by  this  time  have 
learned  the  names  of  many  kinds,  so  that  on  feeling  in  the 
bag  they  can  tell  what  they  have  grasped  before  taking  it 
out. 

These  and  similar  games  will  be  fine  fun  for  recess  or 
other  playtime,  having  no  compulsion  about  taking  part, 
but  making  it  entirely  voluntary.  Few  will  want  to  be 
left  out  where  there  is  something  nice  to  eat. 

Material  put  away. — After  the  lessons  are  completed — 
and  be  sure  and  not  drag  them  along  after  interest  flags — 
plenty  of  willing  and  competent  fingers  can  be  found  to 
sort  any  mixed  material  and  put  all  into  the  proper  bags. 

Replenish  any  which,  like  the  nuts,  may  have  been  used, 
so  that  you  can  feel  sure  all  is  ready  for  the  next  year's 
class.  Inclose  in  tight  boxes,  and  it  is  best  to  paste  paper 


STEP  T,_PLANTS.  17 

over  the  cracks,  or  put  in  *»  large  paper  bag  and  paste  up 
the  top,  as  grain  weevils,  moths,  etc.,  may  cause  damage. 

What  has  been  gained  ? 

All  have  had  a  happy  time,  and  other  work  has  been 
lightened. 

The  eyes,  noses,  and  fingers  have  been  trained. 

Exactness,  order,  perseverance,  and  self-control  have  been 
taught. 

The  difference  between  fruits  and  seeds  noticed. 

An  acquaintance  begun  with  the  varied  forms  of  plant 
life. 

Much  innocent  recreation  suggested  and  a  corresponding 
amount  of  evil  barred  out . 

Much  more  will  have  resulted  from  a  wise  teacher's 
work,  but  these  samples  will  do. 

For  the  next  step  in  Plant  work,  see  V. 

Now  promptly  proceed  with  the  next  step — II. 


STEP  II.— THE  SKIES. 

(GENERAL.) 

The  object  of  these  lessons,  which  are  to  run  through  all 
the  years  of  school  life,  is— 

1.  To  interest  the  child  in  astronomy,  both  for  its  own 
ennobling  thoughts  and  its  discipline  of  the  mental  powers. 

2.  To  cultivate  the  imaginative  powers  by  the  attempts  to 
see  with  the  mental  eye  the  movements  of  the  planets,  the 
formation  of  the  earth,  eclipses,  etc. 

3.  To  furnish  true  concepts  of  our  own  eai  th,  its  form 
and  motions,  etc.,  and  thus  aid  in  geography,  geology,  etc. 

My  experience  has  not  extended  below  nine-year  children, 
but  no  classes  have  ever  shown  greater  interest  and  asked 
oftener  for  "  more  "  than  those  who  so  readily  drank  in  the 
sublime  facts  of  astronomy.  Even  such  conceptions  as  La- 
place's nebular  hypothesis,  the  parallax  of  Sirius  or  Arctu- 
rus,  or  the  revelations  of  the  spectroscope,  seemed  delightful 
tales,  all  the  better  because  frwe,  and  to  their  young  and 
nimble  imaginations  as  real  as  anything  else  in  this  glori- 
ous universe. 

As  to  its  Influence  on  Reading.— A  class  of  about  twenty 
were  having  the  lessons,  and  wanted  to  know  where  I  found 
such  things.  I  told  them  of  Lockyer's  Elements  of  Astron- 
omy (American  edition),  which  I  admire  for  its  terse  and 
delightful  simplicity,  and  in  a  few  days  eight  little  urchins 
were  poring  over  copies  they  had  bought,  and  others  com- 
plained that  their  parents  would  not  let  them  have  the  book — 
they  were  "  too  young."  Who  can  measure  the  influence  on 
these  pupils  of  an  early  acquired  love  for  such  grand  things  ? 

Hence  it  is  with  a  perfect  freedom  from  any  sense  of  mis- 
giving as  to  the  feasibility  or  value  of  these  lessons  that  I 

(18) 


STEP  II.— THE  SKIES.  19 

shall  proceed  to  make  suggestions  which  I  am  confident  will 
prove  valuable  to  all  who,  by  nature  or  acquisition,  love  the 
stars,  and  would  introduce  their  classes  to  "the  heavens 
above."  To  that  large  class  who,  through  failure  in  train- 
ing, never  have  had  this  interest,  I  would  confidently  say: 
"Read  Lockyer  or  some  other  simple  astronomy,  and  see 
with  your  own  eyes  the  constellations,  the  eclipses,  phases 
of  the  moon,  etc.,  and  the  interest  will  come. 

The  time  needed  for  this  step  is  very  little;  it  can  fill  odd 
moments  or  be  interwoven  with  other  work,  as  the  particu- 
lar order  at  first  will  be  immaterial. 

Material  has  all  been  provided  by  the  "Giver  of  all 
Good." 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher.— Has  been  indicated  above. 

The  lessons  of  this  first  step  will  be  very  simple.  Try  to 
teach  (during  the  year)  the  children  to  know — 

1.  The  sun.     (View  it  through  smoked  or  colored  glass.) 

2.  The  moon. 

3.  What  things  always  look  round?    (Spheres.) 

Show  this  by  having  things  brought  that  are  called 
"round"  (coins,  buttons,  paper  circles,  pencils,  handle  to 
broom,  balls,  etc.),  and,  holding  them  in  different  positions, 
let  them  see  that  the  sphere  is  the  only  thing  which  always 
appears  round. 

4.  Call  attention  to  stars. 

5.  Show  some  evening  star — Venus  or  Jupiter — and  no- 
tice that  it  changes  its  position  among  the  other  stars.     The 
a  evening  star  "  is  much  used  in  Hiawatha.     Read  or  tell. 

6.  Show  the  north  or  pole  star,  and  let  them  see  a  com- 
pass or  magnetized  needle  point  toward  it.     What  use  is 
this  to  sailors  away  from  land? 

7.  Dipper.     From  the  north  star  it  is  easy  to  lead  to  the 
"  pointers  "  and  the  rest  of  the  "  Dipper  "  and  the  Great  Bear. 

Give  the  children  an  account  of  the  habits  of  the  shep- 
herds in  the  warm  Eastern  countries  of  "  watching  their 
flocks  by  night,"  and  seeing  the  stars.  (See  Ben  Hur,  chap, 
xi;  Luke  ii,  8,  etc.) 


20 


SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


Let  the  class  prick  or  sew  the  Dipper  and  north  star. 

The  story  of  Callisto  and  her  son  might  be  told,  if  so 
desired.  Juno  changed  the  beautiful  Callisto  into  a  bear; 
who,  seeing  her  son  (a  fine  youth)  one  day,  advanced  to  em- 
brace him ;  when  he,  not  knowing  his  mother  in  the  form  of 
a  bear,  was  about  to  thrust  his  spear  through  her;  to  prevent 
which  Jupiter  snatched  them  both  up  to  heaven  and  placed 
them  among  the  stars  as  the  Great  and  Little  Bears. 

Sew  these  on  perforated  cards;  paste  gilt  stars  on  paper 
or  draw  a  diagram.  The  north  star  will  be  included  in  such 
a  diagram.  If  such  cards  are  made  and  the  children  told 
where  to  look,  much  home  work  will  be  done,  and  the  whole 
family  interested.  This  will  in  great  measure  make  up  for 
the  loss  of  observation  lessons  with  the  teacher,  which  les- 
sons will  often  be  almost  impossible. 

Next  star  work,  Step  VII. 


STEP  III.— SORTING   OF   METALS. 

This  is  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  minerals  and 
rocks.  The  general  plan  of  work  is  indicated  under  the 
Outline  (B). 

As  carried  out  in  the  progressive  manner  indicated,  no 
other  set  of  lessons  have  so  evidently  cultivated  the  powers 
of  prompt  decision. 

Progress  along  this  line  has  been  truly  wonderful,  and  I 
have  valued  the  lessons  correspondingly,  seeing  the  great  need 
in  this  country  and  age  for  the  u  prompt,  decisive  man." 

Further,  for  some  reason  I  do  not  clearly  see,  classes  have 
heen  especially  u  willing  workers  "  in  these  studies,  and  no 
counter-attraction  has  seemed  able  to  prevent  work  at  noon, 
recess,  and  after  school,  so  great  has  been  their  desire  to  con> 
plete  the  course. 

Supplies. — The  following  material  will  be  needed: 

TO   SORT   AND   STUDY.  FOB   REVIEW. 

Iron :  wire,  sheet,  and  cast.  Nails,  bolts,  rivets,  nuts, 

washers,  etc. 

Copper:  wire  and  sheet.  Cent,  rivets,  washers,  and 

utensils. 

Lead:  sheet.  Bullets,  shot,  and  pipe. 

Type  metal :  type.  Stereotype  plates. 

Brass:  wire  and  sheet.  Screws,  keys,  chain,  utensils. 

Bronze :  sheet.  One  and  two  cent  pieces,  or* 

naments. 

Gold :  foil.  Coin,  jewelry,  etc. 

Nickel:  sheet.  Coin,  ornaments,  and  uten- 

sils. 

Silver:  foil.  Coin,  spoons,  and  ornaments. 

(21) 


22  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

TO   SORT   AND   STUDY.  FOR   REVIEW. 

Tin:  foil.  Dish,  spoon,  and  utensils. 

Zinc:  sheet.  Galvanized     wire,      battery 

plate. 

Steel  :    stout  needle,  bit   of      Knife,    file,    tools,   compass, 
watch  spring.  needles. 

Where  to  get  them.— Go  to  the  tinsmith's  or  retail  hard 
ware  merchant,  and  get  him  to  cut  50  pieces,  H  inch  long, 
of  No.  26  wire  of  different  metals  ;  and  of  sheet  metal,  ^  to 
fa  inch  thick  by  \  to  i  inch  wide  and  li  inch  long. 

A  piece  of  thin  casting  will  give  fragments  of  cast  iron. 
Get  old  type  at  printer's. 

Apply  to  the  jeweler's  and  wholesale  druggist's  for  the 
^est  of  the  metals.  Bronze  and  nickel,  cut  as  above.  Gold 
and  silver  can  be  of  thinner  foil,  and  cut  in  bits  i  by  J  inch. 
Get  as  heavy  tin  foil  as  possible,  but  do  not  use  tin  plate,  as 
it  will  mislead  the  pupils.  Break  the  watch  spring  into  bits 
H  to  2  inches  long. 

Magnets.— Get  30  small  bar  magnets  at  a  toy  store,  or 
a  kindly  smith  will  cut  off  30  bits  of  bar  steel  2i  inches  long, 
and  some  one  can  magnetize  them  on  a  dynamo  or  with  a 
large  magnet. 

Wrap  these  specimens  in  plenty  of  soft  paper  and  put  in 
labeled  boxes  in  a  dry  place. 

Trays  and  Boxes.— Provide  30  shallow  trays,  also  450 
small  boxes,  such  as  used  in  Step  I.  Place  in  each  of  the  large 
trays  as  many  of  the  little  boxes  as  you  have  metals,  and  a 
child's  name  written  in  one.  In  a  spare  tray  place  as  many 
boxes  as  you  have  pupils,  and,  taking  the  specimens,  one 
after  another,  drop  a  piece  in  each  box.  Be  sure  each  box 
has  B,full  set  of  the  metals,  for  some  of  the  children  may  be 
inclined  to  keep  or  may  lose  the  specimens,  and  should  be 
held  strictly  responsible  for  the  return  of  the  entire  set. 
Now  let  the  teacher  practice  sorting  the  metals,  studying  to 
find  ways  to  distinguish  those  which  look  alike,  and  then  all 
is  ready  for  the  lesson. 


STEP   III.— SORTING   OF   METALS.  23 

Lesson  given.— At  the  proper  time,  preferably  when  the 
school  is  a  little  tired  with  book  work,  let  the  trays  with 
their  little  boxes  be  given  out,  and,  after  a  few  words,  di- 
recting the  pupils  to  place  each  kind  of  metal  in  a  tray  by 
itself,  give  each  child  one  of  the  sets  you  have  ready,  and 
let  him  begin.  Now  pass  among  them,  and  when  a  child 
has  finished  sorting,  the  raised  hand  will  call  you.  Suppose 
John  raises  his  hand.  With  an  eye  to  shape,  all  wires  and 
all  strips  have  been  put  together.  Commend  him,  but  not 
in  such  a  way  as  to  suggest  his  plan  to  others,  and  tell  him 
to  find  other  ways.  Alice  has  sorted  by  coZor,  and  has  gold 
and  brass  in  one  box ;  iron,  lead,  zinc,  etc.,  in  another.  Com- 
mend her,  but  without  indicating  even  the  boxes  which  have 
errors,  tell  her  to  look  sharply  and  see  if  she  can  find  the 
mistake.  Paul  has  been  more  careful,  but  has  nickel,  silver, 
and  tin  in  one  box ;  while  sheet  iron  is  separated  from  iron 
wire,  and  both  from  cast  iron.  Remind  him  that  there 
may  be  several  pieces  of  the  same  metal,  but  unlike  in  shape. 
Ralph  has  put  one  piece  in  each  tray.  Ask  why  he  separated 
this  from  that,  and  if  he  has  no  reasons,  let  him  try  again. 
When  you  see  that  a  child  has  done  its  best,  suggest  some 
new  way,  as  color,  bending,  shape,  or  thickness,  to  separate 
them. 

Promptly,  a  minute  or  two  before  the  lesson  has  expired, 
take  up  the  boxes  and  pile  in  a  secure  place,  ready  to  re- 
turn to  each  child  his  own  at  the  next  lesson. 

So  continue,  introducing  last  of  all  the  magnet.  This 
will  bring  all  the  iron,  nickel,  and  steel  together.  Now  give 
each  a  pinch  of  iron  filings,  and,  showing  them  how  to 
stroke  the  pointed  end  of  the  needle  on  the  unmarked  end 
of  the  magnet,  see  if  it  picks  up  iron.  It  does  I  Now  try  the 
sheet  iron.  Only  a  little,  if  any.  The  iron  wire  ?  Does  the 
same.  Cast  iron  ?  Same.  Nickel  ?  Same.  Watch  spring  ? 
Many  filings. 

Now  try  your  magnet  on  the  filings.  "  Picks  them  all 
up ! "  Which  of  our  pieces  of  magnetized  metal  are  like  the 
magnet?  "  Needle  and  spring."  These  we  call  steel,  and  the 


24  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

others,  which  do  not  keep  their  magnetism  so  well,  are  iron 
or  nickel.     Which  is  nickel? 

Be  view. — How  is  each  metal  known? 

Iron?    Color  (iron  black).     Does  not  keep  its  magnetism. 

Copper  is  easy  to  bend,  and  red.     (Copper  red.) 

Lead  is  very  soft  and  bluish  gray.     (Lead  color.) 

Type  metal  is  whitish  and  brittle. 

Brass  is  yellow.     (Brass  yellow.) 

Bronze  is  darker  than  brass.     (Bronze  yellow.) 

Gold,  beautiful  yellow.     (Gold  yellow.) 

Nickel  is  like  iron,  but  white. 

Silver  is  a  beautiful  white.     (Silver  white.) 

Tin  is  white.     (Tin  white.) 

Zinc  is  harder  than  lead,  and  grayish. 

Steel  becomes  a  magnet  and  is  gray.     (Steel  gray.) 

Change  Sets.— When  the  metals  are  learned,  let  each  ar- 
range their  sets  neatly  and  return  to  the  teacher,  to  see  that 
all  is  right. 

Let  some  trusty  pupils  take  the  trays,  and,  mixing  all  the 
specimens  in  each  together,  change  the  names,  so  that  each 
child  will  have  a  new  set  to  sort. 

Sort  Mixture. — Throw  all  the  specimens  in  a  tray  to- 
gether, and  when  well  mixed  give  each  child  a  spoonful  to 
sort. 

Select  and  put  away. — Empty  the  trays  of  the  small 
boxes  and  put  them  away  for  future  use. 

Place  several  of  the  shallow  trays  around  the  room, 
where  they  can  be  conveniently  got  at,  and  on  each  a  hand- 
ful of  the  mixed  metals.  At  recess  or  after  school  ask, 
"  Who  will  help  me  sort  these  metals  to  put  away  ? "  Charlie 
may  take  this  tray  and  find  for  me  the  30  (or  whatever  the 
number)  pieces  of  sheet  iron.  Susan,  you  may  gather  the  30 
pieces  of  iron  wire.  John,  30  pieces  of  cast  iron.  So  send 
for  each  kind  of  specimen.  When  a  set  is  returned,  count, 
and  if  right,  thank  your  little  helper;  if  not,  write  on  a  slip 
of  paper  the  number  of  missing  specimens,  and,  putting  it  in 
an  empty  tray,  let  the  child  take  it  and  try  again,  till  all  are 


STEP  III.— SORTING   OF   METALS.  25 

sorted.  Do  not  return  these  used  specimens  to  your  store 
boxes  till  they  have  been  washed  in  strong  soap  suds,  rubbed 
dry  between  pieces  of  flannel,  and  all  spoiled  specimens 
thrown  out.  (Replace  if  needed.) 

If  now  they  are  wrapped  again  in  soft  dry  paper  and  put 
in  the  same  dry  place,  they  will  be  as  bright  as  new  for  the 
next  time. 

A  little  chalk  or  whiting  will  brighten  them  when  rub- 
bing with  flannel,  and  a  piece  of  oiled  rag  to  finish  the  rub- 
bing will  still  further  help  keep  the  brightness. 

Application  and  Review.— Invite  each  to  bring  one  metal 
thing  to  school  the  next  day. 

At  the  time  invite  each  to  tell  what  they  have  in  a  well- 
constructed  sentence. 

Teacher  begin.  — "  I  have  a  steel  pen.  I  know  it  is  steel, 
for  I  rubbed  it  on  a  magnet,  and  now  iron  is  attracted  by 
it."  (Show.) 

Teacher. — "  Tom,  what  have  you  ? " 

Tom. —  4I  have  a  silver  coin.  I  know  it  is  silver  by  its 
white  color." 

If  the  class  is  interested,  let  them  bring  other  things,  and 
vary  the  exercise  by  asking  one  child  to  tell  what  another 
has  brought,  or  otherwise  connecting  the  lesson  with  metal- 
lic things  mentioned  in  the  lesson. 

Remarks. — Time :  Twelve  lessons  of  twenty  minutes  each 
will  be  a  fair  average  if  the  teacher  is  well  prepared. 

Cost :  An  outfit  lasting  a  long  time  will  cost  from  $5 
to  $8. 

Results :  For  this  outlay  of  time  and  money  the  pupil 
has — 

1.  Been  pleased  and  his  other  work  lightened. 

2.  Trained  the  "eye  to  see."     (Color,  shape,  thickness, 
etc.) 

3.  Trained  the  hand  to  feel.     (Bending  and  weight.) 

4.  Gained  definite  concepts  of  12  important  metals. 

5.  Experimentally  gained  several  fundamental  facts  re- 
garding magnets  and  their  relation  to  metals. 


26  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

6.  Taken  a  lesson  in  the  art  of  experimenting. 

7.  Advanced  in  honesty  and  obedience. 

8.  Advanced  in  the  art  of  expression  and  illustration. 

9.  Strengthened  his  mental  powers:     (By  attention.) 

10.  Prepared  for  work  which  is  to  follow. 

He  has  not  been  told  anything  he  could  discover,  himself, 
nor  any  of  the  interesting  facts  regarding  metals  and  mag- 
nets which  his  teacher  would  so  much  like  to  tell,  as  the 
work  given  is  difficult  enough  for  his  little  powers,  and  those 
other  things  have  been  wisely  reserved  for  future  and  more 
opportune  use. 

For  next  step  in  Minerals,  see  VIII. 


STEP  IV.— PLANTS. 
BUDS. 

The  last  study  in  Plants  was  the  sorting  of  seeds  and 
fruits.  For  some  reasons,  it  would  be  hetter  to  take  roots 
and  stems  next,  but  they  can  be  studied  in  the  autumn,  while 
buds  can  only  be  studied  to  advantage  in  the  spring,  and 
hence  are  taken  up  at  this  time. 

Object. — To  extend  one's  acquaintance  with  wisely  select- 
ed botanical  material. 
To  cultivate  the  senses. 
To  prepare  for  future  work. 

Time. — Spring  is  the  best  time.  About  fifteen  lessons  of 
fifteen  minutes  each  will  be  needed,  at  such  time  of  the  day 
as  the  class  may  most  need  relaxation. 

Material. — Must  be  fresh,  and  should  cover  the  subject  as 
fully  as  possible.  The  points  I  would  suggest  at  this  early 
stage  are  as  follows : 

Position.—  End  of  branch:  Hickory,  horse-chestnut,  etc. 
Side  of  branch :  Same,  and  cotton  wood,  etc. 
Above  leaf  scar:  Ash,  apple,  etc. 
In  leaf  scar:  Sumac  and  button  wood. 
Number.—  Single:  Hickory,  cotton  wood,  etc. 
Opposite:  Ash,  lilac. 
Clustered :  Cherry,  red  maple. 
Covering.—  Scaly:  Apple,  hazel,  lilac. 

Gummy :  horse-chestnut,  balm  of  Gilead. 
Varnished :  Willows,  poplars. 
Woolly:  Sumac,  hickory. 
Buried:  Sumac,  locust,  Osage  orange. 
Kind.—  Leaf  bud:  Hazel,  birch,  blackberry. 

Flower  bud:     Cherry,   peach,  hazel  and  birch 
(catkins),  flowering  almond. 

(27) 


28  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

This  list  of  over  20  different  buds  will  illustrate  the  above 
14  points,  but  can  vary  according  to  the  material  at  com- 
mand. 

To  gather  these.— Take  a  basket,  sharp  knife,  and  25  bits 
of  string,  and  (aided  always  by  pupils,  if  possible)  go  into 
the  garden,  park,  or  wood.  The  land  bordering  railroad 
tracks  is  frequently  mown,  and  abounds  in  fine  young  shoots 
of  some  things  which  can  be  cut  without  care.  In  parks 
and  gardens,  choose  the  suckers  or  side  branches,  so  as  not 
to  injure  the  trees.  Cut,  for  a  class  of  thirty,  35  twigs,  4  to 
6  inches  long,  of  each  kind,  and  tie  at  once  in  bundles. 

Set  these  bundles  on  a  damp  cellar  bottom,  or  better,  in 
several  inches  of  moist  sand,  till  they  are  wanted;  but  do 
not  crowd  them  or  they  will  mold. 

The  day  before  the  lessons  begin,  cut  30  pieces  of  string 
and  lay  them  around  a  large  table.  On  each  lay  a  twig  of 
(say)  apple,  counting  as  you  proceed,  so  as  to  know  that  each 
string  has  a  twig  across  it.  Then  take  another  kind  and  lay 
across  the  strings,  till  at  last  you  have  30  bundles,  each  con- 
taining all  the  varieties  of  twigs  you  intend  to  give  out.  Tie 
these  bundles  and  keep  in  a  damp  place  till  needed. 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher.— Read  the  chapter  on  buds 
in  some  good  botany.  Gather  and  work  over  the  material 
as  indicated  above.  Go  through  the  following  suggested 
lines  of  work  with  one  of  the  bundles  of  twigs,  and  your  in- 
terest will  rarely  fail  to  be  aroused  to  the  point  where  you 
will  feel  you  have  something  delightful  to  show  the  pupils. 
Then  you  are  ready  for — 

The  Lessons.— 1.  Show  the  bundles  of  twigs  to  the  class, 
and  have  a  talk  about  where  and  how  you  got  them.  Ex- 
plain what  is  going  to  be  done:  how  the  children  in  turn 
are  to  name  something  they  notice,  and  then  all  are  to  pick 
out  as  many  buds  as  they  can  which  show  the  same  thing. 
Ask  them  to  be  careful  not  to  break  off  the  buds,  as  after 
a  while  we  intend  to  put  them  in  water  to  see  which  will 
grow. 

2.  Give  each  a  bundle  to  untie  and  examine.    After  a 


STEP   IV.— PLANTS.  29 

few  moments  ask,  u  Who  has  noticed  anything  interesting  ? " 
We  will  suppose  the  answers  to  be  as  follows,  although  the 
order  is  of  far  less  consequence  than  that  it  be  sponta- 
neous : 

"These  buds  are  sticky."  Good!  Each  find  how  many 
twigs  with  " sticky"  buds  they  have.  Yes;  two  is  right. 
How  can  we  tell  them  apart  ?  "  These  are  largest,  and  have 
the  buds  in  pairs."  It  is  the  horse-chestnut,  whose  large 
seed  we  had  last  year.  And  the  other  ?  "  Its  yellowish 
buds  smell  sweet."  It  is  the  balm  of  Gilead.  Mary  no- 
ticed that  the  horse-chestnut  buds  were  in  pairs.  All  look 
and  pick  out  those  that  are  the  same.  What  is  the  name  of 
this  one  with  green  buds?  "Lilac."  "We  have  it  in  our 
yard."  Who  notices  something  else  ?  No,  James ;  you  have 
told  something  already,  and  I  want  others  to  have  a  chance. 
Kate  thinks  this  locust  has  no  buds.  Can  any  one  find  other 
branches  on  which  the  buds  do  not  show  ?  Yes;  they  are 
buried  in  much  the  same  way  on  the  Osage  orange.  In  one 
other,  while  the  buds  seemingly  show,  they  are  really  hid- 
den under  a  brown  coverlid.  Who  can  find  it  ?  Yes;  the 
sumac.  Now  tie  up  your  twigs  quickly,  placing  in  each, 
with  the  name  out ,  this  little  wooden  label,  so  that  each  may 
have  his  own  bundle  again  at  the  next  lesson. 

3.  Why  have  I  placed  the  ends  of  these  stems  (show 
sumac,  Osage  orange,  and  locust)  in  water  ?  "  So  that  the 
buried  buds  will  grow."  Yes;  and  so  that  we  can  see  them. 
''I  have  seen  sprouted  sumac  buds."  Have  you,  John  ?  I 
am  pleased  to  see  that  you  remember,  and  soon  we  shall 
see  if  this  also  will  sprout.  "Will  all  these  twigs  sprout  in 
water  ? "  A  bright  question,  Kate.  You  may  come  to  me 
after  school,  and  we  will  arrange  to  try  it.  (When  she 
comes,  tell  her  fresh  twigs  will  be  best,  and  for  her  to  gath- 
er as  many  kinds  as  she  can,  and  bring  to  morrow.  When 
brought,  lay  them  in  a  wash-basin  or  pail  of  water,  and  cut 
the  ends  freshly  under  water  and  insert  in  an  immersed  bot- 
tle, so  that  the  ends  shall  not  for  an  instant  even  come  to 
the  air.  Place  in  a  north  window.)  Look  carefully,  and  tell 


30  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

me  something  new.  "  These  buds  are  all  hairy  "  (holding 
up  the  hickory  twig).  Yes.  All  find  the  same.  It  is  the 
hickory,  from  which  we  get  ?  u  Nuts."  Have  we  other  hairy 
buds  ?  (Find  them.)  What  coverings  have  we  now  noticed  ? 
44  Woolly,  hairy,  sticky,  scaly."  Can  any  one  find  another 
kind?  "  Varnished." 

In  this  way  follow  the  leading  of  the  class  till  all  points 
have  been  noted.  The  distinction  between  leaf  and  flower 
buds  may  require  some  picking  to  pieces  or  waiting  for  the 
buds  in  water  to  open. 

A  walk  in  the  woods  at  recess  or  after  school  will  add 
greatly  to  the  value  of  the  lessons. 

Encourage  the  bringing  of  other  buds,  and  keep  jars  of 
them  about  the  room  till  they  have  opened  and  shown  the 
leaves,  flowers,  pollen,  etc. 

Review. — None  is  needed  in  such  hand  and  eye  work, 
except  such  as  would  come  from  a  walk  in  the  woods,  or 
from  each  finding  and  bringing  twigs  to  name  before  the 
class  or  to  have  the  class  name. 

Collections  may  be  made  and  sewed  on  cards,  but  have 
all  such  work  of  short  duration,  so  as  to  keep  the  interest 
fresh. 

Material  can  not  be  kept,  and  should  be  given  to  the 
pupils  in  order  to  interest  them  at  home. 

Plant  about  the  Yard.— When  our  school  boards  awake 
to  their  opportunities,  an  assortment  of  trees  and  shrubs  to 
illustrate  such  things  will  be  planted  about  the  yard.  Let 
the  pupils  obtain  permission  to  set  out  such  plants  as  u  class  " 
trees,  to  be  added  to  in  succeeding  years  by  other  classes. 

For  the  next  step  in  plant  work,  see  VI,  Stems  and  Roots. 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS. 
INTRODUCTION  :  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

The  object  and  purpose  of  this  branch  of  work  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

1.  The  mental  upbuilding  which  all  true  science  gives. 

2.  To  make  our  survey  of  nature  complete,  and  to  illus- 
trate still  further  the  wonderful  interdependence  which  ex- 
ists between  minerals,  plants,  and  animals. 

3.  Preparation  for  that  greatest  of  all  studies,  man. 

4.  Chiefest,  the  direct  development  of  right  character 
through  the  consideration  of  the  habits  and  actions  of  be- 
ings possessed  of  the  will  power  which  enables  them  to  do 
or  not  to  do;  to  which  actions  we  can  alone  rightly  apply 
such  terms  as  right,  wrong,  just,  noble,  brave,  tender  or  gen- 
erous, social,  patient,  industrious,  etc. 

As  we  study  the  crystal,  and  admire  the  unvarying  an- 
gles and  firm  adherence  to  its  type  through  all  the  changing 
conditions  of  its  surroundings,  we  see  the  power  of  chemical 
affinity  to  unite  molecules  of  the  same  kind  in  orderly 
growth,  and  agree  with  wise  Linnaeus  that  "minerals 
grow,"  but  we  attach  no  character  to  such  act,  well  know- 
ing that  the  crystal  has  no  power  to  will  what  it  shall  be 
or  do. 

So  in  the  plant,  growth  takes  place  according  to  inher- 
ited laws,  but  there  is  an  advance  in  its  relations  to  its  sur- 
roundings sufficient  to  warrant  such  a  term  as  "  sensitive  " 
being  applied  to  many  leaves,  tendrils,  root  tips,  and  other 
growing  parts,  which  can  even  go  so  far  as  to  exercise  a 
kind  of  choice.  This  is  well  seen  in  the  movements  of  ten- 
drils, which  avoid  their  own  stems  while  seeking  some  proper 

(31) 


32  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

support,*  or  in  the  actions  of  insectivorous  plants,  which 
seem  able  to  discriminate  between  food  (as  an  insect  or  bit 
of  meat)  and  a  piece  of  wire  or  sand.f  Wonderful  as  this 
all  is,  there  is  still  no  real  character,  and  the  terms  we  apply 
to  such  things  only  derive  meaning  and  force  from  analogy 
to  the  actions  of  ourselves  and  other  animals. 

Further,  as  the  order  by  accretion  of  the  crystal  fore- 
shadowed the  growth  of  the  plant,  so  the  motion  and  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  plant  foreshadows  the  purposeful  action  of 
the  animal,  where  instinctive  life  culminates  in  the  moral 
and  intellectual  development  of  man.  Here  at  last  do  we 
find  a  true  moral  quality  to  actions,  and  from  them  judge  of 
his  or  her  character. 

That  this  character  be  a  right  one  is  the  all-important 
thing,  for  the  individual,  the  nation,  and  the  world.  With- 
out right  character  our  education  only  makes  an  abler 
rogue;  with  it,  the  "  noblest  type  of  man." 

How  our  schools  shall  best  combine  this  character  build- 
ing with  the  learning  commonly  taught,  is  the  greatest 
problem  of  the  educators  of  to-day ;  and  in  the  true  study  of 
animals  I  find  a  step  toward  its  solution.  While  valuable 
lessons  can  be  drawn  from  the  mineral  and  the  plant,  they 
are  instinctively  recognized  in  the  animal,  which  has  the 
power  to  control  its  actions. 

To  become  part  and  parcel  of  the  pupil,  impressions  must 
be  repeated — "  line  upon  line,  precept  upon  precept,  here  a 
little  and  there  a  little." 

But  that  this  repeating  shall  not  become  wearisome,  that 
the  mind  be  kept  in  that  serene  state  of  contentment  so  es- 
sential to  receiving  impressions,  there  must  be  a  continual 
progress  toward  new  views  of  a  subject. 

Here  is  one  great  gain  from  the  study  of  the  interde- 
pendence of  minerals,  plants,  and  animals,  the  study  of  all 
three  being  far  more  helpful  than  a  threefold  study  of  one. 

*  Gray's  How  Plants  behave,  p.  18. 
t  How  Plants  behave,  pp.  44,  45. 


STEP   V.— ANIMALS.  33 

While  repetition  is  needful,  it  must  be  judicious.  The 
repeated  use  of  strong  substances— tobacco,  alcohol,  pepper, 
etc. — blunts  the  sense  of  taste,  as  the  repeated  blows  on  the 
poor  donkey,  or  the  handling  of  hot  iron  by  the  smith,  makes 
callous  the  sense  of  feeling.  The  reverse  is  seen  in  the 
educated  sensations  of  the  tea-taster  and  the  fingers  of  the 
blind  reader. 

Eight  here  lies  the  explanation  of  the  terse  proverb, 
44  Practice  is  better  than  precept/'  What  teacher  of  any  ex- 
perience is  there  who  does  not  know  the  power  of  example ! 

First  and  foremost,  then,  both  in  the  study  of  animals 
and  in  the  development  of  character,  is  the  living,  acting 
teacher,  be  he  parent,  playmate,  friend,  or  instructor. 

To  re-enforce  this  powerful  factor,  by  illustration  and  re- 
petition, is  the  whole  world  of  animal  life  about  us. 

As  we  choose  to  develop  desirable  traits  and  a  noble  char- 
acter, it  is  plain  that  some  animals  will  be  more  serviceable 
than  others.  Hence  the  necessity  of  careful  choice ;  for  this 
teaching  should  be  positive,  dwelling  on  desirable  traits, 
actions,  and  habits,  following  George  Washington's  advice 
so  far  as  to  "  say  nothing  of  that  about  which  you  can  speak 
no  good." 

For  example,  while  emphasizing  the  skill  and  industry 
of  the  spider,  I  should  ignore  her  bloodthirsty  nature;  and 
choose  the  harmless  kangaroo  as  a  type  of  the  pouched  mar- 
supials rather  than  the  sly  and  tricky  opossum.  Also,  call  at- 
tention to  what  an  animal  has,  rather  than  to  what  it  has  not . 

What  animals  to  choose  from  among  the  300,000  known 
shall  be  our  first  step  in  systematic  work. 

In  this  I  have  been  governed  by  the  following  rules,  and 
selected  such  as  are — 

1.  Available — that  is,  the  animal  or  portions  of  it,  or  its 
products,  can  be  obtained  with  reasonable  effort  for  illustra- 
tion, and  habits  are  either  familiar  or  easily  found  described 
in  common  books. 

2.  Of  marked  and  desirable  traits,  habits,  or  uses. 

3.  Typical  of  large  or  important  classes. 

5 


34  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

4.  Characteristic  of  different  portions  of  the  globe,  in 
order  that  the  study  may  introduce  the  idea  of  the  geograph- 
ical distribution  of  animals,  and  also  aid  the  child  in  clear 
and  accurate  concepts  of  such  portions  of  the  earth. 

5.  The  list,  as  a  whole,  must  include  and  illustrate  all 
points  of  structure,  habit,  use,  character,  etc.,  which  it  is  de- 
sirable to  bring  before  the  child. 

Adhering  as  closely  to  these  rules  as  necessary  compro- 
mises will  permit,  I  have  chosen  the  following  list  of  ani- 
mals; and  as  different  localities  will  require  a  change,  I  have 
added  desirable  substitutes,  but  the  name  first  in  the  list  is 
my  choice,  and  all  that  may  be  said  hereafter  refers  to  that 
in  particular,  whether  it  be  true  or  not  of  the  substitutes. 

1.  Sponge. — Common  kind  of  the  shops. 

2.  Coral.— The  white,  cellular  kind  is  easily  had,  and  is 
interesting  from  its  geographical  and  literary  connections. 

3.  Starfish. — Dried  specimens  of  this  type  of  the  radiate 
structure  are  common.     Alternate,  sea  urchin. 

4.  Earthworms. — Easily  obtained  and  instructive. 

5.  Clam. — Hard  shelled  (Venus).     Easily  obtained  alive, 
or  in  paired  shells ;  a  type  of  the  soft-bodied  animals  hav- 
ing the  limy  outside  skeleton  in  two  parts.     Alternates,  oys- 
ter or  fresh -water  clam. 

6.  Land  Snail.— Type  of  the  soft-bodied  animals  with  the 
limy  shell  in  one  piece.     Alternate,  pond  or  sea  snails. 

7.  Crayfish.— Valuable  and  common    type    of    animals 
having  an  external  jointed  skeleton  and  ten  legs.     Easily 
found,  and  interesting  for  its  illustrations  of  molting,  carry- 
ing young,  digging  "  wells "  for  water,  and  backward  mo- 
tion.    Alternate,  lobster  or  crab. 

8.  Spider   (Garden).— Type  of  these  interesting  insects, 
having  eight  legs  and  no  wings.      Alternate,  trapdoor  or 
water  spider. 

9.  Termite.* — One  of  the  true  insects,  having  six  legs  and 

*  Do  not  call  these  relatives  of  the  dragon  flies  "  ants,"  but  hold  to  the 
correct  name  in  all  work. 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS  35 

an  outside  horny,  jointed  skeleton.     Exceedingly  interesting 
in  its  habits.     Alternate,  aphis  lion  or  ant  lion. 

10.  Mosquito  Hawk.* — A  powerful  insect,  preying  from 
birth  on  others.     Easily  found  in  all  stages  and  reared  for 
observation. 

11.  Locust  (Rocky  Mountain  or  Old  World).— These  ter- 
rible plagues  are  of  great  interest.     They  represent  cattle 
among  insects,  eating  herbage  voraciously  from  birth   to 
death.     The  two  outer  wings  are  straight,  while  the  gauzy 
under  ones  fold  like  fans.    Alternate, a  walking  stick,"  crick- 
et, or  katydid. 

12.  "Ants'  Cows"   (Aphis). f— Easily  obtained  and  true 
bugs,  that  subsist  by  drawing  out  the  juices  of  the  plants 
on  which  they  live.     Eemarkable  for  their  relations  to  ants, 
and  their  peculiar  mode  of  multiplication.     Alternate,  cochi- 
neal bug. 

13.  Squash  Bug. — A  common  example  of  those  ill-odored 
insects  whose  wing  covers  are  thin  at  the  tips  (Herniptera), 
and  whose  mouth  parts  form  a  piercing  beak  to  draw  out 
the  juices  of  the  plant  or  animal  they  feed  upon.    Alternate, 
u  water  boatman  "  (Noctonecta). 

14.  Plant  Beetle  (Potato  Beetle).— An  example  of  insects 
with  the  outer  wing  covers  hard  and  shell-like  (Coleoptera), 
and  meeting  in  a  straight  line  down  the  back.     Eggs,  larva, 
and  insect  only  too  common.     Alternate,  dorbeetle. 

15.  Oak  Pruner.— One  of   the  "long  horned"    beetles 
which  do  so  much  damage  to  trees.     Of  exceedingly  won- 
derful habits,  and  easily  found  in  the  dead  twigs  which  fall. 
Alternate,  pea  weevil. 

16.  Fire  Beetle.— One  of  the  "  soft- winged  "  beetles,  re- 
markable for  its  light-giving  powers.     The  "  glow-worm  "  is 
the  wingless  female  of  the  European  variety.     Alternate, 
spring  beetle. 

*  Not  a  "  fly,"  and  so  I  have  chosen  this  name  as  more  truly  descriptive 
than  "  dragon  fly." 

t  Not  a  "  louse,"  and  so  avoid  the  old  name  of  "  plant  lice." 


36  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

17.  Tumble  Beetles. —These  "dung1'  beetles  are  interest- 
ing on  account  of  their  curious  habits  and  relationship  to 
the  sacred  beetles  (Scarabsei)  of  Egypt.     Not  difficult  to  find 
rolling  their  balls  of  dung  in  roads  and  pastures.    Alternate, 
sexton  beetle  (Necrophorus). 

18.  Mosquito. — These    delicate    two- winged    insects  are 
members  of  the  unappreciated  fly  family,  which  so  benefits 
man  by  the  prompt  removal  of  refuse  in  the  air  and  water. 
From  the  time  its  floating  masses  of  eggs  are  laid  on  our 
pools  and  rain-water  barrels  till  the  "  wigglers  "  hatch,  the 
development  is  interesting  and  easily  watched. 

19.  Flesh  Fly.— This  "  pest"  (?)  is  really  very  useful,  and 
is  easily  studied,  from  the  yellowish  eggs  laid  on  a  dead 
animal  or  bit  of  meat,  through  the  maggot  and  brown  pupa 
stages,  to  the  perfect  fly  in  her  beautiful  green  dress. 

20.  Silk  Moth. —This  valuable  insect  is  the  only  one  of 
its  vast  order  which  is  directly  helpful  to  man.     While  the 
silk  moths  do  not  fly,  they  are  a  type  of  the  night-flying, 
scale- winged  (Lepidoptera)  insects ;  their  antennae  are  feather- 
like  or  hair-shaped,  and  the  caterpillars  spin  silken  cocoons. 
Alternate,  cecropia  moth. 

21.  Sphinx  Moth  (Tobacco  or  Tomato  Caterpillar).— These 
are  a  type  of  the  powerful  twilight-flying  Lepidoptera,  whose 
antennae  are  thickened  in  the  middle  and  end  in  curved 
points.     They  never  spin  cocoons,  but  turn  to  naked  pupae 
in  the  ground  or  under  some  shelter.     The  name  u  sphinx  " 
refers  to  the  motionless  attitude  the  caterpillar  will  assume 
for  protection  when  disturbed.     Alternate,  woodbine  cater- 
pillar. 

22.  Cabbage  Butterfly.— A  common  and  easily  studied 
type  of  this  class  of  gay,  day-flying  Lepidoptera.     The  an- 
tennae are  clubbed  at  the  end,  the  wings  folded  above  the 
back  when  at  rest,  and  the  caterpillars  never  spin  cocoons. 
Alternate,  Asterias  (on  parsley,  carrots,  and  other  Umbel- 
liferae)  or  archippus  of  the  milkweeds. 

23.  Gall  Insect. — Galls  are  so  common  on  oaks,  roses,  etc., 
that  I  have  chosen  these  tiny  relatives  of  the  bees  as  a  type 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  37 

of  the  injurious  division  of  the  family.     They  have  four 
gauzy  wings  (Hymenoptera).     Alternate,  Ichneumon  insect. 

24.  Mud  Wasp.— An  interesting  and  easily  studied  type 
of  the  solitary  wasps.     Alternate,  paper  wasp. 

25.  Honey  Bee. — A  type  of  the  social  membrane-winged 
insects,  which,  because  of  its  thoughtful  provision  for  the 
future  and  for  its  young,  ranks  among  the  highest  of  all 
insects.     Its  habits  are  well  known,  and  it  is  easily  found 
for  observation.     Alternate,  ant. 

26.  Goldfish.— Here  a  backbone  is  introduced.     This  fish 
is  an  easily  kept  example  of  the  scaly,  cold-blooded  animals, 
whose  limbs  are  not  jointed  limbs,  but  rayed  fins.     Also  a 
type  of  fish  having  soft  (not  spiny)  rays  and  smooth-edged 
(cycloid)  scales.     Alternate,  cod  or  whitefish. 

27.  Perch. — This  common  fish  is  typical  of  those  having 
a  number  of  stiff  spines  in  the  back  fin  and  comb-edged 
(ctenoid)  scales.     Alternate,  sunfish. 

28.  Frog. — Common  and  easily  kept  example  of   the 
naked-skinned,  cold-blooded  animals  with  internal,  bony, 
jointed  skeletons.     Especially  advantageous  to  study  in  its 
development,  from  the  egg  through  the  tadpole  stage  to  the 
adult.    Alternate,  toad. 

29.  Garter  Snake.— Example  of  scaly,  cold-blooded  air- 
breather,  having  no  limbs.     Alternate,  grass  snake. 

30.  Chameleon. — Interesting  type  of  the  lizards,  and  dif- 
fering from  the  snakes  in  having  limbs. 

31.  Mud  Turtle. — Common  example  of  these  curious  rep- 
tiles.    The  turtle  can  in  great  measure  take  the  place  of  the 
chameleon.     Alternate,  hawk-billed  turtle. 

32.  Ostrich. — Type  of  the  running  birds,  of  interesting 
habits,  literary  and  geographical  relations.     Feathers  com- 
mon. 

33.  Sea  Gull. — Type  of  the  long-winged  birds.    Common. 
Alternate,  tern. 

34.  Mallard  Duck.— Type  of  birds  with  strainerlike  bills, 
of  interesting  habits.     Its  down  useful.     Alternate,  common 
duck. 


38  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

35.  Stork.— Type  of    the  wading   birds,  of   interesting 
habits.     Alternate,  marabou  stork. 

36.  Cormorant.— Type  of  the  birds  with  three  complete 
webs  (totipalmate),  and  of  especially  interesting  habits. 

37.  Hen. — Common  and  instructive  type  of  the  scratch- 
ing birds.    Young,  active,  and  able  to  run  about.    Alternate, 
jungle  fowl  or  grouse. 

38.  Carrier  Pigeon.— Supplements  the  hen.    Common, 
and  of  interest  from  its  habits  and  reference  to  literature. 

39.  Vulture. — Type  of  the  birds  of  prey  which  are  so  use- 
ful as  scavengers.     Flies  by  day. 

40.  Owl. — Type  of  the  night-flying  birds  of  prey.      In 
structure,  etc.,  supplements  the  vulture.     Interesting  habits. 

41.  Woodpecker  (Red-Headed).— Common  and  interest- 
ing in  habits,  structure,  and  food.     Alternate,  "flicker." 

42.  Humming  Bird  (Ruby  Throat).— This  living  jewel  is 
easily  seen  about  the  flowers,  and  a  type  of  its  family. 

43.  Barn  Swallows. — These  birds  of  tireless  wing  are  repre- 
sentative of    those   which  catch  their  food  while  flying. 
Habits  and  literature  interesting,  and  birds  common.     Al- 
ternate, chimney  swift. 

44.  Cow  Blackbird. — This  common  bird  is  a  fair  example 
of  its  family,  but  chosen  mainly  because  of  its  curious  habits 
of  laying  its  eggs  in  other  birds'  nests  and  associating  with 
cattle. 

43.  Canary. — Easily  obtained  type  of  the  cone-billed, 
seed-eating,  singing  birds.  Also  interesting  in  contrast  with 
the  hen,  etc.,  its  young  being  helpless,  and  dependent  on  the 
care  of  the  parents.  Alternate,  song  sparrow. 

46.  Robin. — Type  of  the  thrushes.    Common,  and  helpful 
from  its  arrival  in  tie  spring  to  its  migration  in  the  fall. 
Alternate,  bluebird. 

47.  Kangaroo.— Example  of  animal  carrying  the  young 
in  a  pouch.     Interesting  from  its  habits  and  geographical 
relations.     Alternate,  opossum. 

48.  Beaver. — Exceedingly  interesting  and  useful  type  of 
the  gnawing  animals. 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  39 

49.  Squirrel.— This  animal  is  easily  tamed  and  kept  for 
observation.     Supplements  the  beaver. 

50.  Mole.— Common  example  of  the  insect-eating  ani- 
mals, and  of  peculiar  interest  from  its  underground  habits. 

51.  Bat. — This  remarkable  animal  also  lives  on  insects, 
but  its  night  excursions  and  mode  of  feeding  make  it  a 
great  contrast  to  the  mole.     Nurses  its  young  as  all  mam- 
mals do. 

52.  Whalebone  Whale.— This  sea  giant  is  an  example  of 
a  warm  blooded  mammal,  living  in  the  sea  and  gathering  its 
food  in  a  very  curious  way.     Alternate,  sperm  whale. 

53.  Elephant  of  Asia.— -This  huge  and  intelligent  animal 
has  much  of  interest  in  his  habits  and  structure. 

54.  Horse. — Example  of  the  single-toed  animals.     Famil- 
iar and  useful. 

55.  Camel. — Of  interesting  habits  and  structure.     Useful, 
and  showing  great  adaptability  to  desert  surroundings.     Al- 
ternate, llama. 

56.  Reindeer. — Type  of  the  solid-horned  and  even-toed 
cud-chewers.     Interesting  structurally  and  from   its  uses. 
Alternate,  red  deer. 

57.  Cow. — Type    of    the   hollow -horned    cud-chewers. 
Familiar  and  useful.     Alternate,  yak. 

58.  Sheep. — An    example    of    the    hollow-horned    cud- 
chewers,  with   angular  horns.     Interesting  for  its  typical 
habits  and  usefulness. 

59.  Black  Bear. — Omnivorous,  and  places  the  whole  foot 
on  the  ground  in  walking  (plantigrade).    Interesting  habits, 
and  supplements  those  flesh-eaters  which  follow.    Alternate, 
white  bear. 

60.  St.  Bernard  Dog.— So  familiar  and  interesting  in  its 
habits  as  to  need  no  commendation.     Alternate,  fox. 

61.  Cat. — Type  of  the  flesh-eaters.     So  easily  obtained 
and  examined  as  to  be  of  great  help  in  teaching  about  ani- 
mals.    Claws  retractile. 

62.  Seal.— A  flesh-eating  animal  living  in  the  sea  and 
with  paddles  for  limbs.    Of  great  use  and  interest, 


40  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

63.  Prehensile-tailed  Monkey  of  South  America.— Inter- 
esting in  its  habits  and  representative  of  the  order,  while  not 
introducing  certain  questions  connected  with  the  apes  which 
are  un suited  to  this  phase  of  the  work. 

64.  Boy. — A  common  and  well-known  animal.      Most 
familiar  of  any,  and  hence  well  suited  to  introduce  the  study 
of  animals. 

WHAT  POINTS  TO  TEACH. 

Having  selected  our  representative  animals,  what  to  teach 
becomes  the  next  question.  I  shall  group  the  items  under 
a  series  of  heads,  arranged  in  the  order  of  presentation  to 
the  child.  This  order  is  of  much  importance.  The  follow- 
ing have  been  my  guiding  rules : 

Arrange  from  the  simplest,  the  general— and  that  within 
the  child's  experience — to  the  complex,  particular,  and  un- 
known or  unobserved.  Also,  so  as  to  keep  up  a  constant 
review  by  a  progressive  new  view  that  brings  up  the  old  un- 
der new  conditions.  With  these  in  mind,  I  should  place — 

1.  Where  they  live.— In  what  country.     (To  be  found  on 
the  map.)     All. 

In  warm  climate :  Camel,  elephant. 

In  cold  climate :  Reindeer,  whale. 

In  the  sea :  Sponge,  starfish. 

In  fresh  water :  Polli wog,  goldfish,  young  mosquito. 

Partly  in  water  and  partly  on  land :  Frog,  turtle. 

In  the  earth :  Mole,  worm. 

On  dry  land:  Horse,  cat. 

On  trees :  Monkey,  squirrel. 

In  the  air:  Swallow,  mosquito  hawk. 

This  locates  the  animal  and  clears  the  way. 

2.  Feeling  and  Touch.— Delicate  in:  nose,  mole;  fingers, 
monkey;  wings,  bat. 

To  find  food :  Coral's  tentacles ;  spider  "  feels  "  his  web. 
To  select  food :  Horse,  by  lips ;  worm. 
To  guide  in  moving  about:  Cat's  whiskers;  snail's  feel- 
ers: bat. 


STEP   V.— ANIMALS.  41 

3.  Ears  and  Hearing.— Keen:  Bat,  cat. 
Movable:  Elephant,  horse. 

Outside  ears:  Bear,  squirrel. 

Ears  concealed:  Hen,  woodpecker,  frog. 

4.  Eyes  and  Seeing.— None:  worm. 
Buried:  Mole. 

On  stalks  and  movable:  Crayfish,  snail. 

How  many :  Beaver,  spider,  vulture. 

Simple  or  compound:  Duck,  fly,  mosquito  hawk,  spider, 
caterpillar. 

Keen :  Cat,  vulture,  robin. 

See  in  dark :  Cat,  owl. 

Location :  Fish,  frog1,  hen,  owl,  spider. 

Lids — motion,  and  how  many:  Horse,  canary,  hen,  fish, 
snake. 

Pupil— shape  and  size:  Cat  (0),  frog  (o),  hen  (o),  horse 
(o). 

Tear:  Boy,  fish. 

5.  Nose  and  Smell.— Use  of:  Camel,  elephant. 
Hair  on  nose :  Horse,  sheep. 

Keen:  Fly,  dog,  mosquito. 
Nostrils  directed :  Bear,  frog,  hen. 

6.  Taste.— Use  of:  Horse,  sheep. 
Where  located :  Boy. 

The  five  senses  put  the  animal  in  connection  with  the 
surroundings  and  determine,  next,  its 

7.  Movements. — Creep:  Snail,  caterpillar. 
Crawl:  Snake,  worm. 

Swim  forward  :    Beaver,  cormorant,  fish,  seal.     Swim 
backward:  Crayfish. 
Dive:  Frog,  seal. 
Walk:  Cowbird,  hen. 
Walk  on  all  fours :  Reindeer,  elephant. 
Walk  erect:  Boy. 
Walk  on  sole  of  foot:  Boy,  bear. 
Walk  on  toes :  Cat,  sheep. 


42  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Runs:  Dog,  ostrich. 

Gallop  and  canter:  Horse. 

Hop:  Frog,  kangaroo,  locust,  robin. 

Climb:  Chameleon,  fly,  monkey,  woodpecker. 

Fly  swiftly :  Dove,  humming  bird,  swallow. 

Fly  noiselessly :  Bat,  owl. 

Fly  by  night :  Bat,  moths,  fire  beetle. 

Fly  by  day :  Butterfly,  mosquito  hawk,  vulture. 

Scratch:  Hen,  dove. 

Burrow:  Mole,  worm. 

Organs  are  required  to  make  these  movements,  and,  using 
the  word  to  cover  the  whole  range  of  members  helping,  I 
place  next — 

8.  Limbs  and  Organs.— Stinging  tentacles:  Coral. 
Tube  feet:  Starfish. 
Bristles:  Worm. 

Antennae  or  "  feelers " :  Butterfly,  tumble  beetle,  sphinx 
moth. 

Muscles:  Clam. 
Foot:  Clam,  snail. 
Fins:  Goldfish,  perch. 
Legs:  None,  snake. 

Sixteen,  caterpillars. 

Ten,  crayfish. 

Eight,  spider. 

Six,  plant  beetle,  fly. 

Four,  cow,  elephant,  squirrel,  mole. 

Two,  boy,  ostrich,  robin. 
Toes:  Five  in  front  and  five  behind,  bear,  chameleon. 

Five  in  front  and  four  behind,  cat,  dog. 

Four,  canary,  hen,  duck,  woodpecker. 

Two,  cow,  camel,  ostrich,  reindeer. 

One,  horse. 

Webbed,  beaver,  cormorant,  duck,  frog. 
Tarsus:  Robin. 
Nails:  None,  frog. 


STEP   V.— ANIMALS.  4.3 

Nails:  Blunt,  dog,  hen,  kangaroo. 
Hoofs:  Horse,  reindeer,  sheep. 
Claws:  Sharp,  cat,  owl. 

Retractile,  cat. 
Hooks:  Bat. 

Wings :  Four,  squash  hug,  locust,  mosquito  hawk,  sphinx 
moth. 

Two,  bat,  dove,  fly,  stork,  ostrich. 

Long,  gull,  swallow. 

Gauzy,  bee,  fly. 

Scaly,  butterfly,  silk  moth. 

Shell-like,  plant  beetle,  oak  pruner  beetle. 

Inner  unlike  outer,  locust,  tumble  beetle,  squash  bug. 
Arms:  Monkey,  boy. 
Hand :  Monkey,  boy. 
Flippers:  Seal,  whale. 

Tail:  Beaver,  crayfish,  dove,  frog,  perch,  horse,  kangaroo, 
monkey,  woodpecker. 

9.  Symmetry. — This  best  follows  limbs,  and  calls  the 
pupil's  attention  to  the  important  fact  that  there  is  in  each 
animal  an  orderly  arrangement  of  parts  as  regards  form, 
size,  and  position. 

An  "  above  and  below  " :  Coral,  starfish. 

A  "  before  and  behind  " :  Canary,  squirrel. 

The  organs  paired,  and  two  sides  alike:  Cow,  locust. 

Body  in  two  parts :  Spider. 

Body  in  three  parts :  Bee,  wasp,  fly. 

Body  in  many  parts:  Caterpillar  (13),  worm. 

Having  noticed  the  organs  of  motion  and  their  arrange- 
ment, the  next  thing  will  be  an  important  object  sought, 
which  is — 

10.  Food.— Milk:  Calf,  kitten,  colt. 

Eoots,  bark,  and  twigs :  Beaver,  kangaroo,  camel. 
Herbage :  Plant  beetle,  locust,  caterpillar,  reindeer,  snail, 
sheep. 

Fruit  and  seeds :  Canary,  squirrel. 


44  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Decaying  wood :  Oak  primer,  termite. 

Insects:  Bat,  chameleon,  mosquito  hawk,  mole,  swallow, 
woodpecker. 

Fish :  Cormorant,  perch,  gull,  seal. 

Small  animals  and  birds:  Owl,  snake. 

Both  animal  and  vegetable  food:  Hen,  bear,  robin. 

Everything  which  gets  in  its  mouth :  Coral,  clam,  sponge, 
whale. 

Excrement  and  refuse :  Crayfish,  worm,  tumble  beetle, 
young  mosquito. 

Carrion:  Fly,  vulture. 

Juices  of  plants  or  animals:  Ants'  cows,  squash  bug,  mos- 
quito, spider. 

Nectar  or  pollen  of  flowers :  Bee,  butterfly,  sphinx  moth. 

Water:  Cow,  camel. 

Salt  desired:  Sheep,  boy. 

To  handle  and  help  prepare  this  food  for  swallowing,  we 
have — 

11.  Lips.— To  grasp  food:  Boy,  horse. 
To  drink  with :  Cow,  dove,  hen. 
Fleshy:  Boy,  cow. 

A  horny  beak:  Hen,  owl,  robin,  humming  bird,  turtle. 

12.  Tongue.— Thick  and  fleshy:  Boy,  cow. 
Horny:  Fish,  woodpecker. 

Fastened  in  front:  Frog. 

Forked:  Snake. 

Used  to  pull  in :  Cow,  woodpecker. 

To  scrape :  Cat,  snail. 

To  lap :  Dog,  cat. 

To  suck:  Calf,  lamb. 

To  catch :  Chameleon,  frog. 

To  move  food  in  mouth :  Horse,  boy. 

A  coiled  u  tongue  " :  Butterfly,  sphinx  moth. 

A  piercing  beak:  Ants'  cows,  mosquito,  squash  bug. 

13.  Jaws  and  Teeth. — Jaws  move  from  side  to  side :  Oak 
pruner,  crayfish,  caterpillar. 


STEP   V. -ANIMALS.  45 

Jaws  move  up  and  down :  Duck,  dog. 

Wide  gape :  Cat,  snake,  swallow. 

Swallow  food  whole:  Dove,  snake. 

Teeth  to  aid  in  catching:  Perch,  snake. 

Teeth  to  gnaw  and  bite :  Beaver,  squirrel,  cow. 

Tearing  teeth :  Cat,  seal. 

Grinding  teeth :  Cow,  reindeer. 

Huge  tusks  to  dig :  Elephant. 

All  kinds  of  teeth:  Bear,  boy. 

Teeth  which  grow  throughout  life :  Beaver,  squirrel. 

Strainer  to  catch  small  prey :  Duck,  whale. 

Chews  cud :  Cow,  sheep. 

The  food  thus  prepared  not  only  furnishes  motive  power, 
but  heat  as  well,  and  we  next  notice — 

14.  Temperature  and  Breathing.— Breathe  air  in  water 
by- 

Gills  in  tail :  Young  mosquito. 

Gills  along  sides:  Clam,  crayfish. 

Gills  in  head :  Goldfish,  tadpole. 

Through  siphons:  Clam.  • 

By  skin :  Frog,  coral. 

Breathe  air  by  lungs :  Bat,  cow,  hen,  horse,  whale. 
Breathe  air  by  spiracles:  Sphinx  moth,  caterpillar,  mos- 
quito. 

Blood  cold :  Goldfish,  turtle,  snake. 
Blood  hot:  Cat,  hen,  seal. 
Blood  red :  Boy,  hen. 
Blood  white:  Worm. 
Perspire:  Dog,  horse,  boy. 

Temperature  and  breathing  will  be  modified  by  where 
the  animal  lives,  and  also  by — 

15.  Covering.— Naked  skin:  Coral,  frog. 
Hard,  limy  shell:  Clam,  snail. 
Jointed  limy  shell :  Crayfish. 

Jointed  horny  shell :  Mosquito  hawk,  wasp. 


46  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Scales:  Chameleon,  goldfish,  perch,  snake,  turtle. 

Feathers:  Cormorant,  duck,  hummer,  owl,  ostrich. 

Hair:  Camel,  cow,  reindeer,  seal. 

Horns:  Cow,  sheep. 

Wool:  Sheep. 

Fur:  Beaver,  bat. 

Thick  fat:  Bear,  whale,  seal. 

Thicker  in  winter:  Duck,  horse. 

Clothes:  Boy,  horse. 

Oil  glands:  Duck. 

Molting:  Canary,  cat,  crayfish,  caterpillar,  snake. 

Covering  has  various  uses  and  is  clossly  connected  with 
or  forms  the — 

16.  Skeleton.— Horny  and  elastic:  Sponge. 
Limy  and  basal :  Coral. 

Limy  and  outside:  Clam,  snail. 

Outside  and  jointed :  Crayfish,  mosquito  hawk.  wasp. 

Inside,  bony,  and  jointed:  Hen,  sheep,  turtle. 

.  Now,  leaving  the  idea  of  a  framework  and  support  for 
the  muscles,  return  to  covering  (15)  in  a  restricted  sense,  and 
next  consider — 

17.  Color  of.— Skin  :  Coral,  frog,  wattles  and  comb  of 
hen,  caterpillar. 

Shell:  Snail,  clam. 

Horny  skeleton:  Plant  beetle,  fire  beetle,  wasp. 

Scales:  Goldfish,  snake. 

Feathers:  Canary,  humming  bird,  robin. 

Hair:  Cow,  seal. 

Horns:  Cow. 

Wings :  Butterfly,  moth,  potato  beetle. 

Legs  and  feet :  Duck,  dove. 

Bill:  Duck,  dove. 

Teeth :  Cat,  elephant. 

Eyes:  Cat,  dove,  mosquito  hawk. 

Father:  Rooster,  woodpecker. 


STEP   V.— ANIMALS.  47 

Mother:  Hen,  hummer,  duck. 

Eggs:  Dove,  robin,  potato  beetle,  duck. 

Changeable:  Chameleon. 

18.  Use  of  Color.— There  is  frequently  an  evident  pur- 
pose in  this  coloring.     Allied  with  shape  and  attitude  it 
may  cause  the  animal  to  harmonize  with  its  surroundings, 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  render  it  conspicuous. 

Concealed  by  color:  Butterfly,  crayfish,  chameleon,  frog, 
caterpillar,  robin,  snake. 

By  shape:  Chameleon,  caterpillar. 
By  attitude :  Frog,  sphinx  caterpillar,  butterfly. 
In  holes:  Bat,  crayfish. 
In  nests:  Duck,  woodpecker. 

Conspicuous  and  attractive :  Butterfly,  woodpecker,  light 
of  fire  beetle. 

Should  concealment  fail,  there  are  often  other  means  of— 

19.  Defense  or  Escape.— Hard  shell :  Clam,  turtle. 
Bad  odor:  Squash  bug. 

Pinchers:  Crayfish. 

Sting:  Bee,  wasp. 

Strong  jaws :  Soldier  termite. 

Spiny  fins:  Perch. 

Wings:  Robin. 

Claws  and  beak :  Hen,  owl. 

Teeth :  Dog,  elephant. 

Claws  and  teeth:  Cat. 

Nose:  Elephant. 

Horns:  Cow,  reindeer. 

Legs  and  feet:  Horse,  ostrich. 

Tail:  Horse,  whale,  kangaroo. 

Swiftness:  Fish,  swallow. 

Voice:  Bear,  dog,  hen. 

From  §§  1  to  16  we  were  concerned  with  the  individual 
alone,  but  with  color  (17)  there  is  evident  a  progressive  over- 
shadowing of  the  unit  and  a  revealing  of  relations  to  others. 


48  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Color  would  be  comparatively  useless  if  the  individual  pos- 
sessing it  were  the  only  one  that  had  eyes.  u  Hiding  "  or 
u  defense  "  would  lack  an  object  were  the  individual  alone ; 
and  even  u  character "  (as  we  understand  it)  is  either  rela- 
tive or  comparative.  Advancing  along  the  line  of  these 
new  and  higher  relations,  we  next  consider — 

20.  Voice  and  Language.— Touch:  Blind  people,  ants, 
cows. 

Signs  and  motions :  Vulture,  monkey. 

Chirrup:  Locust. 

Buzzing:  Fly,  bee. 

Whirring :  Sphinx  moth,  humming  bird. 

Fluttering:  Butterfly,  dove. 

Hum:  Bee,  mosquito. 

Croak:  Frog. 

Hiss:  Snake. 

Quack:  Duck. 

Peep:  Chicken. 

"Song/'  cackle,  remonstrance,  cluck,  chuckle,  warning 
cry,  soothing  croon :  Hen. 

Coo:  Dove. 

Hoot:  Owl. 

Roar:  Camel,  ostrich.     . 

Scream:  Gull. 

Chattering:  Monkey,  woodpecker. 

Twitter:  Swallow,  humming  bird. 

Drumming:  woodpecker. 

Song:  Canary,  robin. 

Bark:  Squirrel,  dog. 

Slap:  Beaver. 

Clicking:  Bat. 

Spouting:  Whale. 

Trumpeting:  Elephant. 

Neigh,  whinny,  and  snort:  Horse. 

Bleat:  Sheep. 

Moo,  low,  and  bellow :  Cow. 

Growl:  Bear,  dog. 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  49 

Howl:  Dog,  monkey. 

Bark  and  whine :  Dog. 

Purr,  mew,  spit,  and  squall:  Cat. 

Laugh,  talk,  whistle,  sing:  Boy. 

Cry,  sigh,  groan :  Of  sick  or  hurt. 

Yawn  and  snore :  Of  sleepy. 

Blush  and  smile :  Of  pleasure  or  disgrace. 

Facial  expression :  The  habitual  becomes  fixed. 

Talk,  command,  joke,  etc. :  With  the  mouth  and  eyes. 

Taken  in  connection  with  actions,  these  varied  forms  of 
expression  form  a  wonderful  index  of  the  true  character, 
and  are  a  potent  factor  in  determining  whether  the  animal 
shall  be — 

21.  Solitary  or  Social.— Solitary:  Mosquito  hawk,  owl, 
spider,  mud  wasp. 

Social  in  feeding:  Coral,  cowbird,  cow,  monkey,  sheep. 

Social  in  defense :  Bees,  termite. 

Social  in  work :  Bee,  beaver,  termite. 

Social  in  play :  Cat,  woodpecker. 

Social  in  voice :  Frog,  swallow,  woodpecker,  monkey. 

Social  in  migrations :  Locust,  robin,  stork,  swallow. 

Social  in  hibernation :  Bat,  frog. 

Whether  the  animal  be  social  or  solitary,  it  will  be  best 
to  next  consider  the  results  of  their  activity  under — 

22.  What  they  make.—Burrows  in  earth:  Tumble  beetle, 
worm. 

Wells:  Crayfish. 
Flytraps  and  houses :  Spider. 
Covered  roads:  Termite. 
Galleries  in  wood :  Termite,  oak  pruner. 
Chambers  in  earth :  Mole,  termite. 
Egg  boats:  Mosquito. 
Silk  houses :  Silk  moth. 
Holes  in  leaves :  Potato  beetle,  caterpillar. 
Galls:  Gall  insect. 
6 


5Q  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Wax  cells:  Bee. 

Balls  of  excrement:  Tumble  beetle. 

Mud  cells :  Wasp. 

Down  coverlets :  Duck. 

Huge,  coarse  nests:  Stork. 

Nests  in  the  sand:  Ostrich,  turtle. 

Nests  on  the  ground:  Duck,  hen. 

Nests  on  crags :  Vulture. 

Nests  in  trees :  Humming  bird,  robin. 

Nests  in  the  hollows  of  trees:  Owl,  squirrel. 

Mud  nests :  Robin,  barn  swallow. 

Holes  in  trees  for  nests :  Woodpecker. 

Dams,  houses,  and  slides :  Beaver. 

Homes  in  the  ice:  Seal. 

Beds  in  tree  tops :  Monkey,  squirrel. 

Slimy  tracks:  Snail. 

Houses,  railroads,  etc. :  Men. 

Much  of  this  "  making  "  is  more  or  less  directly  connected 
with — 

23.  Family  Life.— Choose  mates  for  life:  Dove,  stork. 
Build  a  house  together :  Beaver,  robin,  woodpecker,  swal- 
low. 

Care  for  the  young:  Bee,  black  bear,  crayfish,  kangaroo. 
Train  the  young :  Cat. 
Make  room  for  others :  Bee. 
Divide  the  work :  Bee,  termite. 

In  this  wonderfully  beneficent  institution  we  observe  a 
still  greater  surrender  of  the  individual  will,  and  accommo- 
dation to  others.  Self-sacrifice  reaches  its  highest  develop- 
ment in  and  through  the  care  and  training  of  the — 

24.  Young.—  These  are  produced  by- 
Buds:  Coral. 

Eggs :  Potato  beetle,  hen. 
Hard  shell :  Hen,  duck,  ostrich. 
Round:  Snail. 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  51 

Oval:  Hen,  canary. 

Cylindrical :  Fly,  potato  beetle. 

How  many :  Dove,  hen,  perch. 

Laid  singly :  Hen,  dove,  wasp,  butterfly. 

Laid  in  masses :  Frog,  mosquito. 

Laid  in  the  water :  Sponge,  goldfish,  mosquito. 

Laid  in  the  earth :  Turtle,  worm,  locust. 

Laid  on  food  for  young :  Fly,  butterfly,  potato  beetle. 

Laid  in  food  for  young:  Gall  insect,  tumble  beetle. 

Laid  with  prepared  food :  Mud  wasp. 

Deserted  by  mother :  Cowbird,  locust,  snake. 

Carried  by  mother:  Crayfish. 

Hatched  by  sun :  Spider,  snake,  turtle. 

Set  on  by  mother :  Canary,  duck,  owl. 

Laid  in  other  nests:  Cowbird. 

Born  alive :  Cat,  sheep. 
Names  of  the  young — 

Larva:  Bee,  locust. 

Pupa:  Butterfly,  moth,  fly,  potato  beetle. 

Grub:  Beetle. 

Maggots:  Fly. 

Caterpillar:  Butterfly,  moth. 

Tadpole:  Frog. 

Fry:  Fish. 

Ducklings:  Duck. 

Chickens  of  hen. 

Squab:  Dove. 

Owlets:  Owl. 

Birdlings:  Canary,  robin. 

Calf:  Whale,  cow. 

Colt:  Horse. 

Lamb:  Sheep. 

Cub:  Bear. 

Puppies:  Dog,  seal. 

Kittens:  Cat. 

Baby:  Man. 
Different  kinds  of  young:  Ants'  cows,  bees,  termite. 


52  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Like  parents  in  form :  Goldfish,  snake,  hen,  sheep. 

Go  through  changes  in  form:  Frog,  mosquito,  caterpillar, 
locust. 

Have  a  resting  (pupa)  stage :  Butterfly,  hawk  moth,  po- 
tato beetle,  fly. 

At  once  active  as  soon  as  born  and  able  to  feed  them- 
selves: Cow,  duck,  locust,  spider,  turtle. 

Weak,  helpless,  and  dependent:  Canary,  dove,  cat,  cow- 
bird. 

Suckled  by  mother:  Whale,  bat,  cat,  dog,  sheep,  seal. 

Inherit  physical  character  of  parent:  Milch  cow,  race 
horse,  dove. 

Why  the  young  need  parents :  Cat. 

Informed  by  the  senses  of  its  surroundings,  the  resulting 
movements  are  largely  decided  by  that  remarkable  faculty 
called — 

25.  Instinct. — Sentinels  placed  to  watch:  Beaver,  ostrich, 
crow. 

Flee  away :  Ostrich,  kangaroo. 

Hide :  Cow,  cat,  duck,  frog,  hen,  hummer,  ostrich,  turtle, 
coral. 

Marks  food  and  home :  Bee,  duck,  squirrel. 

Knows  direction :  Horse,  dove,  swallow,  stork. 

Weatherwise:  Bee,  swallow. 

Forethought:  Oak  pruner,  tumble  beetle,  bee,  beaver, 
spider,  squirrel. 

In  home  building:  Robin,  swallow,  beaver. 

Young  go  straight  to  water:  Duck,  turtle. 

Feign  hurt:  Duck. 

Feign  death:  Potato  beetle,  squash  bug. 

Migrate:  Robin,  stork,  swallow. 

Hibernate:  Black  bear,  frog,  turtle. 

From  the  acts  performed  under  the  guidance  of  this 
unquestioning  and  almost  infallible  faculty,  as  well  as 
those  determined  by  more  advanced  reason,  we  judge 
of— 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  53 

26.  Character.— This  may  be,  emphasizing  only  desirable 
traits- 
Fearless:  Bee,  dog,  hen. 
Industrious :  Beaver,  termite,  bee. 
Skillful :  Termite,  beaver. 
Persevering:  Spider,  mosquito. 
Patient:  Cat,  hen,  robin,  sheep. 
Meek  and  gentle:  Dove,  sheep. 
Tender:  Dove,  robin. 
Watchful:  Cat,  dog,  vulture. 
Imitative:  Monkey,  sheep. 
Neat:  Cat. 

Docile:  Cormorant,  horse. 
Obedient:  Elephant,  dog. 
Confiding:  Stork,  swallow. 
Influenced  by  companions :  Sheep,  vulture. 
Intelligent:  Elephant,  dog,  wasp. 
Affectionate:  Dog. 
Faithful:  Dog. 
Constant:  Dove,  stork. 
Self-denying:  Robin,  hen. 
Sympathetic:  Monkey,  swallow. 
Helpful:  Stork,  dog. 
Merry:  Robin. 
Truthful: 


Generous : 
Merciful : 
Forgiving: 


Only  God,  and  the  boy  or  girl,   man  or 
woman,  who  is  Godlike. 


Thoughtful: 

Reverent:       j 

As  with  man:  uHe  best  serves  himself  who  serves 
others."  All  the  way  down  to  the  lowest  animal,  the 
faithful  doing  of  the  little  daily  duties  not  only  accom- 
plishes these,  but  also  those  monumental  things  for  the  race 
which  shall  endure  for  all  time.  We  next  notice — 

27.  How  they  Serve.— Help  to  form  islands:  Coral,  star- 
fish, clam. 


54  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Prepare  the  soil  for  plants:  Termite,  worm,  crayfish. 

Remove  decaying  things  in  water:  Crayfish,  gull,  mos- 
quito. 

Remove  carrion  and  refuse:  Tumble  beetle,  fly,  stork, 
vulture. 

Remove  decaying  wood :  Woodpecker,  termite. 

Remove  injurious  insects :  Bat,  chameleon,  mole,  robin, 
snake,  swallow,  woodpecker. 

Destroy  injurious  animals :  Cat,  owl. 

Produce  food  for  ants :  Ants'  cows. 

Fertilize  flowers:  Bee,  butterfly,  moth. 

Draws:  Cow,  elephant,  horse,  reindeer. 

Carry :  Camel,  elephant,  horse,  dove. 

Catch  fish :  Cormorant. 

Scatter  seeds :  Cow,  dove,  squirrel,  sheep. 

Distribute  animals :  Duck. 

Sing:  Canary,  robin. 

Help  others :  A  good  example. 

Closely  connected  with  this,  but  separated  for  our  pur- 
pose, is— 

28.  What  they  give- 
Ornament: 

Wampum:  Clam. 

Mother-of-pearl:  Clam. 

Feathers :  Humming  bird,  ostrich. 

Ivory:  Elephant. 
Clothing,  etc. : 

Buttons:  Cow,  horse. 

Silk:  Silk  caterpillar. 

Down:  Duck. 

Feathers:  Duck,  hen. 

Whalebone:  Whale. 

Wool:  Sheep. 

Hair:  Camel,  horse. 

Fur:  Beaver,  cat,  seal. 

Skins:  Bear,  reindeer,  sheep,  seal. 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  55 


Leather:  Cow,  sheep. 

Horn:  Cow,  reindeer. 

Sponge:  Sponge. 

Thread:  Reindeer,  seal. 

Glue:  Cow. 
Food,  etc. 

Honey:  Bee. 

Shell  fish:  Clam,  snail. 

Fish:  Perch. 

Flesh:  Turtle,  bear. 

Poultry:  Duck,  hen. 

Eggs:  Duck,  hen,  ostrich,  turtle. 

Mutton:  Sheep. 

Beef  and  veal :  Cow. 

Milk:  Cow,  horse,  reindeer. 

Butter:  Cow. 

Cheese:  Cow. 

Milk  sugar:  Cow. 

Blubber:  Seal,  whale. 
Light: 

Wax:  Bee. 

OH:  Seal,  whale. 

Tallow:  Cow,  sheep. 

Fire  beetle. 
Color,  building  material,  etc. : 

Deposits  of  niter :  Bat. 

Guano:  Gull. 

Galls:  Gall  insect. 

Stone :  Coral  and  clam. 

Lime :  Coral  and  clam. 

Hair:  Cow. 
Life: 

All  young  have  parents. 

"  Come,  let  us  with  our  children  live.11 

Advice  and  precept. 

Noble  example. 

Opportunity  for  experience. 


56  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

"  Greater  love  hath  no  man  than  this,  that  a  man  lay 
down  his  life  for  his  friend." 

All  this  rearing  and  training  of  children,  this  "  giving  " 
and  this  "serving"  is  in  great  measure  the  privilege  of 
middle  life,  when  the  matured  powers  are  fresh  and  strong. 
This  will  have  been  to  us  an  experience,  and  the  experience 
Will  have  developed  character. 

Right  character  being  the  most  desirable  thing,  if  we 
have  lived  aright  it  will  indeed  have  been  "  good  for  us  to  be 
here."  As  a  whole,  our  lives  will  have  been  happy  and 
helpful,  and  if  we  love  the  young  we  shall  wish  them  the 
same  happy,  helpful  existence. 

But  something  more  than  "  wishes "  are  needed.  The 
young  are  entitled  to  care  and  food  ;  to  the  training  and  ad- 
vice which  age  and  experience  are  able  to  impart;  and,  last 
but  by  no  means  least,  to  an  opportunity  to  use  the  lessons 
received,  and  in  their  turn  gain  the  upbuilding  in  character 
which  only  comes  through  experience. 

Among  the  lower  animals  this  is  made  certain  by  relent- 
less Death,  who  beneficently  sweeps  out  of  existence  the 
mature  and  aged,  that  the  young  may  have  a  chance  not 
only  to  do  as  well  but  to  advance  toward  better  things. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  man  would  here  show  his 
superiority  to  the  brute  creation,  and  by  a  thoughtful  letting 
go  his  hold  on  business  and  power  permit  the  young  to 
have  their  needed  day.  Alas !  who,  candidly  looking  this 
question  in  the  face,  must  not  admit  that  it  would  never  do 
to  leave  such  an  important  matter  to  man's  free  will  ? 

Here,  then,  with  all  its  pain  and  trouble— do  I  see  the 
need  and  reason  for  death.  Taking  nature  as  a  whole,  and 
leaving  self  out  of  the  question,  is  it  not,  like  all  of  God's 
plans  for  us,  wise  and  beneficent  in  its  operation  ?  Death 
is  bound  to  come  to  the  child's  notice  sooner  or  later,  and, 
while  not  forcing  it  upon  him,  I  would  gradually  lead  up 
to  the  thought  outlined  above,  and  teach  that  here,  as  al- 
ways, u  whatever  is  is  best,"  and  that  "  the  servant  is  not 
above  his  Master,"  who  declared:  "It  is  expedient  for  you 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  57 

that  I  go  away."  Further  in  this  it  is  not  proper  here  to  go, 
and  I  will  only  add  that  the  "  sorrow  "  was  healed  hy  the 
promise  "  I  come  again."  The  application  needs  no  comment. 
We  have  thus  chosen  a  series  of  animals  which  are  as 
far  as  possible — 

1.  Available. 

2.  Of  marked  and  desirable  traits  and  characters. 

3.  Typical  of  large  classes. 

4.  Characteristic  of  different  lands  and  oceans. 

5.  Fully  illustrative  of  desirable  points  and  lessons. 

We  have  also  grouped  these  points  and  lessons  under 
heads  arranged  in  a  desirable  sequence  for  work  and  each 
point  illustrated  by  the  one  or  several  (but  never  many) 
animals  which  were  fitted  to  bring  it  before  the  pupil. 

These  essential  steps  completed,  we  are  now  ready  to 
present  this  to  the  pupils — emphasizing  again  that  in  this 
stage  there  is  to  be  no  comparing,  no  generalizing,  no  tell- 
ing,  but  simply  bringing  animal  after  animal  before  the  class 
and  securing  a  notice  of  certain  points  or  lessons  which  we 
have  decided  on  as  best  to  present  in  that  particular  case, 
assured  by  our  carefully  laid  plan  that  all  desirable  points 
will  in  due  time  come  before  the  class,  and  each  will  be  re- 
peated often  enough  to  become  fixed. 

The  work  of  the  teacher  will  be  to  present  the  animal, 
or  truthful  representations  to  the  class,  and  some  object 
from  or  connected  with  it  to  aid  in  fixing  the  interest. 

The  work  of  the  pupils  will  be  to  see  and  tell  about,  in- 
vestigate, and,  if  they  choose,  question. 

The  results  will  be  expressed  by  the  pupil  in  terms  of  u  1 
saw,"  "  It  looked,"  "  I  heard,"  "  I  felt,"  etc. 

To  this  must  be  added  "I  read"  or  "Teacher  read"  ; 
while  only  in  rare  cases  must  they  be  able  to  say  "  Teacher 
told  me." 

Does  this  mean  much  that  can  not  be  given  ?  Omit  it, 
then ;  for  there  is  enough  that  can  be  given  properly,  and 
the  rest  will  come  in  later,  and,  best  of  all,  the  child  will  not 
be  spoiled  for  true  work. 


58  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Having  thus  analyzed  and  outlined  this  very  important 
branch  of  science,  the  real  work  of  Step  V  follows. 


(STEP  V.— ANIMALS.) 
ACQUAINTANCE  WITH  A  FEW  HOME  ANIMALS. 

Object.— 1.  To  learn  the  use  of  external  organs  from  a 
boy. 

2.  To  extend  this  to  common  animals. 

3.  To  enforce  moral  lessons. 

4.  To  teach  various  points  in  habit,  structure,  etc. 

Time.— Of  the  school  year— late  spring  and  early  sum- 
mer. Of  the  day — when  pupils  need  relaxation.  About 
thirty -five  lessons  of  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  each,  and  averag- 
ing three  points  a  day. 

Material. —  The  animals  chosen  for  this  step  are  all 
common  and  easily  observed,  so  that  live  specimens  can 
usually  be  examined.  Some  things  will,  however,  need  fore- 
thought. 

1.  Search  the  ditches  in  early  spring  for  frogs'  eggs  to 
place  in   some   wide-mouthed  dish  (as  an  earthen  baking 
dish)  to  hatch,  and  simply  let  the  pupils  see  them  from  day 
to  day. 

2.  When  digging  the  garden  and  flower  beds,  especially 
near  where  tomatoes  stood,  look  for  the  naked  brown  pupa 
of  the  sphinx  moth  and  take  them  to  school  for  the  chil- 
dren to  see.    Then  bury  in  damp  sand  and  cover  with  net- 
ting to  catch  the  moths. 

3.  Have  a  jar  with  a  few  fish  (of  almost  any  kind)  for  the 
daily  observation  of  the  children. 

4.  Set  a  u  school  hen,"  if  possible. 

Preparation  of  teacher  will  consist  in  getting  things 
to  show  to  the  class  and  in  making  his  own  observation  on 
them  first. 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  59 

Books  suggested  for  reference  are  Owens's  Comparative 
Zoology,  Romanes's  Animal  Intelligence,  and  The  Riverside 
Natural  History.  Many  other  books  contain  things  which 
these  omit  or  give  but  briefly,  but  these  are  most  generally 
useful. 

The  Lessons.— Make  thorough  preparation,  so  that  no 
delay  will  occur  in  the  class. 

Push  the  work  vigorously.  The  moment  one  point  is 
clearly  presented  to  the  class  drop  it  and  take  the  next. 
An  average  of  three  points  should  be  made  each  day,  and  to 
do  this  may  mean  a  dozen  topics  on  simple  work  in  one  day, 
and  not  all  of  a  single  one  some  other  day. 

I  wish  to  particularly  caution  against  confusing  ditf erent 
kinds  of  animals.  So  many  of  the  books  for  children  seri- 
ously confuse  and  mislead  by  a  number  of  anecdotes  and 
statements  about  different  species  of  some  animal,  all  brought 
in  together  as  though  they  were  all  true  of  one.  Hence  in 
these  lessons,  having  decided  to  talk  about  some  kind  of 
land  snail,  say  nothing  about  all  the  hundreds  of  other 
kinds.  If  about  the  mud  wasp,  talk  only  of  that. 

The  Boy. — Children  know  more  about  their  own  organs 
than  those  of  any  other  animal.  Hence  begin  here,  and 
bring  out  the  following  points  in  preparation  for  following 
work.* 

1.  Where  do  boys  live?    "  On  land."    (All  for  this  time.) 

2.  Can  a  boy  feel  ?    Where  best.     (Make  tests  on  ex- 
posed parts.) 

3.  Can  boys  hear?    What  with  ? 

How  many  ears  ?    Where  are  they  placed  ? 

4.  Can  he  see?    What  with  ? 
Where  are  the  eyes  placed  ? 
How  many  ? 

What  shape  is  the  pupil  ? 

*  The  numbers  before  each  point  refer  to  the  twenty-eight  headings 
before  given :  "  1.  To  where  they  live ;  2.  To  touch  and  feeling,"  etc. 


60  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

How  is  the  eye  closed  ?    How  many  lids  to  each  ? 
Which  way  do  the  lids  move  ? 
Any  other  use  for  the  lids  ?    (Protect  and  moisten.) 
How  are  the  lids  kept  moist  and  from  rubbing  on  the 
eye  ? 

5.  Nose.— Where  placed  ? 
Nostrils  directed  ? 

Use  of  smelling  ? 

6.  Taste.— Where  located  ? 
Why  we  have  taste. 

7.  What  ways  of  moving  has  a  boy  ? 
In  what  position  does  he  "  creep  "  ? 
How  does  he  "  swim  "  ? 

Position  in  u  walking  "  ? 

How  is  the  foot  placed  down  in  walking  ? 

How  does  running  differ  ? 

How  does  he  "  climb  "  ? 

8.  What  limbs  has  a  boy  ? 
How  many  legs  ? 

How  many  arms  ? 
How  many  toes  ? 
How  many  fingers  ? 
How  many  nails  ? 

Has  he  a  thumb  ?    What  can  he  do  with  the  thumb  that 
he  can  not  do  with  any  finger  ?    (Place  it  opposite  to  fingers.) 

9.  How  are  his  legs  and  arms  arranged  ?    (In  pairs.) 
How  about  the  eyes,  ears,  and  nostrils  ? 

10.  What  does  he  eat  ? 
What  is  the  natural  drink  ? 
Is  salt  desired  ? 

11.  Is  the  opening  of  the  mouth  across,  or  up  and  down  ? 
Of  what  use  are  the  lips  ? 

How  are  the  lips  used  in  eating  ? 
How  in  drinking  ? 

12.  Has  a  boy  a  tongue  ? 

Where  is  it  located  ?    (Fills  the  middle  of  the  mouth.) 
Which  end  is  fastened  ? 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  61 

What  uses  can  you  observe  for  it  ? 

13.  Which  way  do  a  hoy's  jaws  move  ? 
Where  are  the  teeth  placed  ? 

How  many  ?    Use  ? 

What  three  important  ways  of  using  them  ? 

Where  are  the  u  hiting  "  teeth,  and  what  is  their  shape  ? 

Where  the  "  grinding  "  teeth  ? 

Where  the  u  tearing  "  teeth  ? 

14.  What  does  a  boy  breathe  ? 
Is  his  body  warm,  or  cold  ? 
Of  what  color  is  the  blood  ? 
Does  he  perspire  ?    When  ? 

15.  What  covering  to  the  body  ?    (Skin.) 
What  extra  covering  to  the  head  ? 

How  do  we  protect  the  naked  skin  from  the  weather  ? 

16.  Are  there  hard  parts  to  the  body  ? 
Where  are  the  bones  ? 

What  do  we  call  the  place  where  bending  motion  occurs  ? 
(Joints.) 

17.  Of  what  color  is  the  skin  ? 
The  hair  ? 

The  teeth  ? 
The  eyes  ? 
The  nails  ? 

20.  What  sounds  does  he  make  ? 
Meaning  of  a  cry  ? 
What  feeling  does  a  laugh  express  ? 
What  is  "  talk  "for? 
What  is  singing  ? 
When  does  he  groan  ? 
When  sigh  ?    When  snore  ? 
Meaning  of  a  yawn  ? 

What  look  comes  over  the  face  when  pleased  ? 
How  is  shame  expressed  in  the  face  ? 
Can  you  tell  anything  of  the  feelings  by  the  looks  of  the 
eyes  f 

How  do  dumb  people  talk  ? 


62  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

How  would  you  manage  to  get  a  drink,  or  some  food,  if 
among  those  who  spoke  a  strange  language  ? 

Do  anger,  meanness,  and  untruth,  show  in  the  face  ? 

Is  there  any  danger  that  a  scowl  may  become  the  fixed 
expression  of  the  face  ? 

21.  Do  boys  like  to  be  alone,  or  in  company  of  others  ? 

22.  What  do  grown-up  boys  (men)  make  ?    (Confine  this 
list  to  a  limited  time  and  the  experience  of  the  children.) 

23.  What  persons  make  up  a  family  ? 
What  is  the  place  they  live  in  called  ? 
What  does  the  father  do  for  the  family  ? 
What  the  mother  ? 

How  can  brothers  help  ? 

And  the  sisters  ? 

(Each  teacher  must  work  such  a  topic  out  in  her  own 
way,  but  limit  the  time,  or  it  can  become  wearisome,  and 
varying  phases  will  constantly  be  coming  up  under  other 
animals.) 

24.  What  is  a  very  young  boy  called  ? 

Can  he  run  about  and  get  food  as  soon  as  born  ? 

Would  you  think  from  his  looks  a  baby  was  to  be  a  man  ? 

Having  pushed  this  elementary  and  preparatory  study  of 
the  boy  to  a  brisk  conclusion,  at  once  proceed  to  consider 
the  following  points  in  a  common  type  of  the  milk-giving 
animals. 

The  Cow  (No.  57). 

8.  Notice  that  she  has  four  legs  and  a  cleft  hoof  with 
two  toes. 

9.  Notice  that  the  organs  are  arranged  in  pairs,  and  the 
two  sides  of  the  body  alike. 

10  and  11.  She  drinks  water  by  means  of  fleshy  lips. 

12.  Her  tongue  is  thick  and  fleshy  and  used  to  draw  the 
food  in. 

13.  She  has  no  upper  biting  teeth,  but  has  stout  grinders. 
She  eats  rapidly,  and  then  at  her  leisure  brings  up  the  swal- 
lowed food  again  into  the  mouth  and  chews  her  cud. 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  63 

14.  She  breathes  air  by  lungs,  and  her  breath  is  "sweet." 

15.  She  is  covered  with  hair,  and  has  round  horns. 
17.  Notice  the  color  of  her  hair  and  horns. 

19.  She  defends  herself  and  calf  with  her  horns. 

20.  Cows  have  a  very  expressive  language,  well  under- 
stood by  each  other  and  by  persons  who  are  familiar  with 
them.     Much  of  it  is  untranslatable,  but  the  following  will 
illustrate :  "  Moo."    This  gentle  call  is  used  to  the  calf  when 
near,  and  in  an  appealing  tone  to  ask  for  food  or  water. 
"Lowing"  is  in  a  more  vigorous  tone  and  the  call  for  its 
mates,  the  inquiry  put  to  strange  cattle,  or  the  appeal  to  the 
keeper  for  food  or  water  when  he  can  not  be  seen.    "  Bellow- 
ing "  is  the  language  of  rage  or  pain. 

21.  Cows  are  social,  and  much  dislike  isolation  from  their 
kind.    If  shut  up  alone,  they  will  use  their  best  efforts  to 
escape,  and,  failing  in  that,  stay  on  the  side  of  the  field  near- 
est to  other  cattle.     They  will  even  form  an  attachment  for 
other  animals,  as  a  horse  or  sheep  with  which  they  may  be 
confined. 

24.  The  young  is  called  a  calf,  which  is  able  soon  after 
birth  to  walk  and  suckle.  The  power  of  inheritance  is  seen 
in  the  way  the  milk-giving  powers  of  the  Holsteins,  the 
fawn-colored  muzzle  of  the  Jersey,  or  the  flesh  and  fat 
producing  powers  of  the  shorthorns  is  transmitted.  The 
lesson  to  draw  from  this  will  come  later  ;  only  notice  the 
fact  now.  Note  the  color  and  tenderness  of  the  unused 
muscles  in  the  veal  of  the  calf. 

27.  The  cow  is  of  great  service  to  man.     In  the  Azores  * 
I  constantly  saw  cows  employed  to  draw  wagons,  plow, 
harrow,  and  turn  the  mills  for  grinding  meal  and  flour. 
They  also  aid  plants  to  scatter  their  seed,  as  any  cow's 
tail  and  legs  will  show  who  has  been  where  burs,  etc.,  were. 

28.  Not  only  does  she  u  serve,"  but  she  gives  much.    Her 

*  Always  find  a  place  or  country  on  the  map  with  the  class.  I  have 
this  end  in  view  in  all  such  references,  and  a  steady  and  healthy  gain  will 
result  in  the  knowledge  of  the  earth's  surface. 


64  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

rich  milk  is  a  perfect  food  for  us.  On  it,  when  standing, 
rises  rich  cream,  composed  of  little  globules  of  fat  incased  in 
cheesy  envelopes.  By  dashing  these  about  in  a  churn  the 
cheesy  coverings  are  broken,  and  the  oil  adheres  together  in 
masses  which  we  call  butter. 

If  the  milk  is  curdled  in  a  certain  way,  all  the  liquid 
"  whey  "  drained  out,  and  the  "  curd "  salted,  pressed,  and 
kept  a  while  to  u  cure,"  we  have  the  rich  yellow  cheese. 

From  the  yellowish,  watery  whey  the  Swiss  separate  a 
hard  and  not  very  sweet  sugar,  called  milk  sugar,  which  we 
are  all  familiar  with  in  the  form  of  pills  and  tablets. 

When  she  is  not  needed  for  milk,  the  cow's  flesh  gives 
us  the  beef  so  common  on  our  tables,  and  the  fat  is  called 
tallow  and  used  to  make  candles  and  soap. 

The  hair  is  taken  off  the  hide  and  used  to  mix  with  lime 
and  sand  for  mortar  to  plaster  our  houses. 

The  skin  is  then  soaked  in  water  with  the  ground-up 
bark  of  the  oak  or  hemlock  tree  ;  which  tans  the  raw  hide 
into  the  firm  leather  of  which  boots  and  shoes  are  made. 

The  white  bone  buttons  used  on  underclothing  are  part- 
ly her  gift,  and  from  her  horns  are  made  combs  and  other 
things.  That  nothing  be  lost,  scraps  of  untanned  hide,  bits  of 
horn,  hoofs,  and  even  bone  are  boiled,  and  out  of  them  is  dis- 
solved a  substance  we  call  glue.  In  giving  this  point,  bring 
a  quart  of  milk  and  set  it  for  cream.  If  different  children 
are  interested  to  compare  the  milk  of  their  different  cows, 
let  them  bring  the  new  milk  and  set  samples  of  each  in 
equal-sized  test  tubes,  and  through  the  glass  sides  the  thick- 
ness of  the  cream  that  rises  can  be  judged. 

Have  samples  of  butter,  cheese,  milk  sugar,  beef,  etc., 
brought  by  different  pupils.  Curdle  some  milk  with  rennet 
or  a  little  acid  and  show  the  "  curds  "  and  "  whey."  Light 
a  candle.  Show  some  old  plaster  with  the  hair  in  it.  Let 
the  boys  file  or  scrape  a  quart  of  oak  bark,  and,  having 
steeped  it  well,  put  in  a  scrap  of  rawhide.  Have  bone  but- 
tons and  glue  brought.  There  will  be  no  lack  of  interest 
in  such  work,  and  the  only  caution  I  have  is:  "Do  not  tell 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  65 

anything  it  is  possible  to  show  or  have  the  class  find  out ; 
and  do  not  continue  the  work  too  long. 

The  Hen  (No.  37). 

Material  needed:  Get  the  butcher  to  save  a  lot  of  heads 
and  legs  (which  they  usually  chop  off  and  throw  away),  wash 
them  well,  dry,  and  give  one  of  each  to  every  two  or  three 
pupils.  Get  some  pupil  to  bring  a  live  hen  in  a  box  to  have 
it  for  examination.  A  hen  should  also  have  been  set  about 
two  weeks  before  this  study  begins. 

3.  Search  for  the  concealed  ear. 

4.  Find  the    3    eyelids.      Which  way  do    they  move? 
Gently  touch  the  eye  of  a  live  hen  with  a  feather  and  see 
her  wink.    Notice  the  round  pupil.    Can  a  hen  look  for- 
ward without  turning  her  head  ? 

5.  Notice  the  nostrils,  where  they  are,  and  which  way 
directed. 

7.  A  hen  walks. 

8.  The  hen  has  four  toes,  with  blunt  claws.    From  the 
toes  up  to  the  first  joint  is  called  the  tarsus.     Is  it  feathered, 
or  not  ? 

10.  Her  food  is  a  mixed  diet  of  seeds,  fruits,  insects,  etc. 

11.  Her  lips  are  a  horny  bill. 

14.  She  breathes  air  by  lungs,  and  her  body  is  warm  and 
blood  red. 

16.  She  has  an  inside,  bony,  jointed  skeleton.     (See  a 
cooked  chicken.) 

17.  Note  the  colors  of  both  rooster  and  hen,  and  that  the 
latter  is  less  brilliant.      Note  the    bright-red   comb    and 
wattles.    Where  are  they  ? 

19.  She  defends  herself  and  young  with  claws  and  bill, 
aided  by  her  cries. 

20.  Her  language  is  varied  and  very  expressive. 
When  well  and  soon  to  lay  she  goes  about  with  a  con- 
tented and  continued  set  of  notes,  which  I  call  her  "songr." 

The  egg  laid,  she  "  cackles  "  her  joy,  and  all  join  in  con- 
gratulation. 
7 


66  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

She  has  a  scolding  note  when  disturbed  on  the  nest, 
which  may  become  a  harsh  cry  of  remonstrance. 

When  the  "peep  "  of  the  chicks  in  the  hatching  eggs  is 
heard,  she  has  a  gentle,  soothing  croon  of  encouragement, 
used  later  to  quiet  the  chickens  safely  folded  to  the  warm 
breast  by  her  protecting  wings.  As  her  active  little  flock  is 
led  about,  they  are  kept  together  and  near  her  by  the  fre- 
quent "cluck." 

If  food  is  discovered,  all  are  called  to  share  in  it  by 
the  chuckle  which  accompanies  the  division  of  it  with  her 
bill. 

A  peculiar  cry  is  given  if  danger  (especially  from  above) 
appears,  when  all  hasten  to  shelter. 

22.  Her  nest  is  made  low  on  the  ground,  or  similar  place. 

24.  The  eggs  are  oval  and  have  a  hard  shell,  and  are — if 
no  one  interferes — about  as  many  as  she  can  well  keep 
warm. 

They  are  laid  one  at  a  time,  and  in  her  efforts  to  get  a 
nest  full  she  will  continue  to  lay  for  quite  a  while  if  the 
eggs  are  removed.  The  young  are  called  chickens,  and 
are  shaped  like  the  mother. 

Call  attention  to  the  difference  in  color  and  tenderness 
between  the  meat  of  the  breast  and  the  legs.  Which  does 
she  use  the  most  ? 

Which  need  to  be  the  strongest  ?  Make  the  application 
to  ourselves,  that  if  we  want  any  part  to  be  strong  we  must 
use  it. 

25.  A  hen  lays  her  eggs  in  what  she  supposes  a  hidden 
place. 

26.  She  is  fearless  in  defense,  and  will  return  again  and 
again  to  the  attack  if  she  thinks  hatching  eggs  or  young  are 
in  danger.    Her  patience  in  setting  three  long  weeks  con- 
tinuously to  hatch  the  eggs  is  remarkable. 

When  the  chickens  are  hatched,  she  is  self-denying  in 
her  efforts  to  scratch  up  and  break  in  pieces  the  food  for 
her  brood. 

28.  The  hen  well  repays  the  care  we  give  her  by  the 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  67 

highly  valuable  food  from  her  eggs.  Her  feathers  are  of 
use  for  beds  and  pillows,  and  her  flesh  is  pleasant  to  the  taste, 
and  nourishing. 

The  Garter  Snake  (No.  29). 

Procure  a  few  small  u  garter  "  snakes  and  have  them  to 
pass  around  the  class  (or  one  at  least,  if  the  teacher  has  the 
courage).  Handling  first  by  the  teacher,  followed  by  the  ex- 
ample of  some  courageous  boy,  will  do  much  to  remove  the 
foolish  fear  so  many  have  of  our  common  snakes ;  but  force 
no  one  to  touch  them,  as  serious  consequences  may  result. 
A  large  snake  in  alcohol  will  aid. 

Keep  a  snake  in  a  covered  jar  for  some  days  for  the 
children  to  see,  and  if  little  talks  be  held  at  odd  moments 
with  those  watching  it,  they  will  be  ready  for  the  lesson.  A 
cast-off  skin  should  also  be  had. 

As  an  examination  of  the  list  will  show,  the  following 
points  are  to  be  drawn  out  regarding  the  snake: 

4.  Has  no  eyelids. 

7.  Moves  by  crawling. 

8.  Its  food  consists  of  small  animals  and  insects. 

In  spite  of  its  occasionally  eating  some  innocent  frog  or 
poor  little  birdling,  it  does  a  vast  deal  to  rid  us  of  classes  of 
injurious  animals  (mice,  etc.)  and  insects  which  feed  at 
night  and  so  escape  birds.  Hence  I  would  teach  that  the 
common  snakes  are  our  friends,  and  should  not  be  merci- 
lessly killed  when  seen. 

12.  Notice  the  forked  tongue. 

12.  Any  one  who  has  observed  a  snake  swallowing  a  frog 
or  bird  must  have  wondered  at  the  way  the  mouth  can 
stretch.  The  bones  are  arranged  something  after  the  man- 
ner of  a  tin  lunch  box,  which  can  shut  up  flat  or  open  to 
full  size.  To  aid  in  catching  and  swallowing  its  food,  the 
mouth  has  little  sharp  teeth  which  slant  backward.  These 
can  be  felt  with  the  finger  or  a  pin. 

14.  Feel  a  live  snake.     Is  it  warm,  or  cold  ? 

16.  Note   the    covering   of   scales.     How  many  rows. 


08  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

counted  across  the  back  ?  When  the  snake's  firm  jacket  of 
scales  gets  old  and  worn  or  too  small,  a  new  suit  begins  to 
grow  under  the  old,  which  then  becomes  loose,  and  at  last 
splits  and  peels  off.  Who  ever  saw  one  of  these  old  skins  ? 
Here  is  one  for  those  who  have  not. 

17.  Note  the  colors  of  the  scales.  Are  they  solid  or  in 
patches  ?  18.  As  you  look  into  some  grass  or  bushes,  is  all 
equally  bright  ?  How  does  the  ground  under  a  tree  appear 
when  the  sun  is  shining  ?  (Flecked  with  light  and  shade.) 
Can  any  one  think  of  a  use  to  the  snake  of  his  speckled 
coloring  ? 

20.  Snakes  hiss. 

24.  The  long,  white  eggs  of  the  garter  snake  are  laid  un- 
der some  sheltering  clod  of  earth  and  deserted  by  the 
mother.  No  heat  is  needed  to  hatch  them  but  that  of  the 
air  and  sun ;  and  the  young  leave  the  soft  shell  looking  very 
much  like  the  mother. 

27.  Garter  snakes  crawl  about  on  the  ground  at  night 
and  eat  the  insects  which  escape  the  notice  of  birds ;  hence 
they  are  of  much  service  to  us,  and  should  no  more  be  killed 
than  a  toad,  which  is  so  highly  prized  in  European  gardens 
as  to  be  bought  and  let  loose  where  needed. 

The  Frog  (No.  28). 

If  the  eggs  were  gathered  in  the  ditches  soon  after  the 
ice  disappeared,  and  have  been  kept  in  wide,  well-aired 
dishes  of  water  to  hatch,  as  suggested  before,  the  pupils  will 
have  done  a  good  deal  of  observing  and  be  ready  for  this 
advance.  Get  one  or  two  frogs  of  any  common  kind  and 
confine  them  in  some  large  glass  dish  by  tightly  covering 
with  wire  netting. 

1.  The  frog  lives  partly  on  land  and  partly  in  the  water. 
Where  do  the  young  live  ? 

3.  The  ears  have  no  outside  opening. 

4.  The  eyes  are  almost  on  top  of  the  head,  and  stand  out 
when  open.     How  are  they  when  closed  ?    The  pupil  has  a 
curiously  angular  look,  and  is  called  u  rhomb-shaped. " 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  69 

5.  The  nostrils  are  on  the  upper  tip  of  the  snout  and  near 
the  eyes. 

7.  The  frog  can  dive  and  swim  under  water  and  hop  on 
land. 

8.  Note  that  his  webbed  toes  have  no  nails. 

12.  Note  the  fleshy  tongue,  fastened  in  front  and  thrown 
out  to  catch  insects. 

14.  The  frog  breathes  air.     When  moist  the  skin  also 
aids ;  and  if  a  frog  can  not  keep  his  skin  moist  he  soon  dies. 
The  young  tadpoles  living  in  the  water  have  gills. 

15.  Note  the  naked  skin. 

17.  What  colors  to  the  skin  ?    How  arranged  ? 

18.  When  frightened  from  the  bank  of  a  pond  or  brook, 
what  does  the  frog  do  ?    Who  can  think  of  a  use  for  his 
green  and  white  speckled  coloring  ?    His  projecting  eyes  ? 
His  nostrils  being  so  high  up  ?  * 

20.  Frogs  croak.     (See  Whittier's  "  Barefoot  Boy.") 

21.  Are  social  in  their  "  concerts,"  and  are  also  said  to  con- 
gregate together  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  ponds  when 
hibernating. 

24.  The  eggs  are  laid  all  at  once,  in  jelly  like  masses,  often 
on  the  stems  of  water  plants.     The  young  are  called  "tad- 
poles," and  breathe  the  air  in  fresh  water  by  gills.     These 
undergo  exceedingly  interesting  metamorphoses  before  be- 
coming frogs.    Trace  these  changes  through  with  the  class, 
aiding  by  pictures.     Help  each  child  to  secure  one  or  two  to 
take  home  and  watch.    It  will  interest  the  family  and  great- 
ly aid  the  child. 

25.  The  way  a  frog    "instinctively"   seeks  a  position 
where  the  colored  spots  of  his  back  will  protectively  har- 
monize with  his  surroundings,  and  then,  without  making  the 
slightest  ripple,  pushes  his  projecting  eyes  and  nostrils  just 
above  the  surface  and  comfortably    lies   there   to   await 
further  developments,  is  very  interesting,  and  will  introduce 

*  If  the  class  can  not  think,  in  no  case  tell  them.     Such  questions  lie  in 
the  mind  and  develop  unconsciously  into  a  clear  perception  of  the  truth. 


70  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

the  children  to  some  profoundly  instructive  phases  of  ani- 
mal life. 

Would  not  inquire  the  use  of  his  white  belly  here,  hut 
await  until  the  evident  need  of  such  an  arrangement  is  seen 
in  the  perch. 

As  cold  weather  comes  on,  frogs  bury  themselves  in  the 
mud  at  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  other  still  water  and  hiber- 
nate till  early  spring. 

The  Goldfish  (No.  26). 

Some  of  these  pretty  creatures  should  have  been  swim- 
ming and  feeding  in  the  school  aquarium  (a  wash-bowl  or 
other  bowl,  with  a  fence  of  wire  screen  about  it  to  keep  them 
from  jumping  out)  for  some  weeks.  If  goldfish  are  not  to 
be  had,  some  of  the  small  fishes  found  in  brooks  and  ditches 
in  early  spring  will  do,  but  require  more  care  to  live. 

Get  a  good-sized  "  sucker,"  or  whitefish  from  the  butcher 
about  the  time  of  the  second  lesson  ;  let  the  class  see  the 
fms,  and  let  each  have  a  few  scales  to  examine  and  keep  as 
specimens. 

1.  Goldfish  live  in  the  water. 

4.  The  eyes  are  on  the  sides  of  the  head  and  have  no 
eyelids.  Do  they  need  tears  to  moisten  their  eyes  ? 

7.  Fishes  swim  forward. 

8.  Their  limbs  are  called  fins.     These  fins  are  held  and 
stiffened  by  little  ribs  called  rays.     Are  the  rays  of  this  fish 
soft,  or  spiny  ?    How  many  fins  ?    How  arranged  ? 

12.  Place  your  finger  in  its  mouth  and  note  how  hard 
the  tongue  is. 

14.  Find  the  gill  openings  on  the  sides  of  the  head,  and, 
raising  them,  see  the  delicate  red  gills  with  which  the  fish 
breathes  the  air  in  the  water.     Watch  a  live  fish  and  see 
how  the  water  is  constantly  kept  moving  over  the  gills.     Is 
a  live  fish  cold,  or  warm  blooded  ? 

15.  Goldfish  are  clothed  with  scales.     Take  a  few,  and 
note  that  the  edge  is  rounded. 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  71 

17.  Observe  the  color  of  the  scales. 
19.  How  does  a  fish  escape  from  an  enemy  ? 
24.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  water  among  gravel,  and 
the  little  fish  are  from  the  first  shaped  much  like  the  mother. 

The  Sphinx  Moth  (No.  21). 

I  have  chosen  this  moth,  rather  than  the  butterfly,  be- 
cause of  its  size  and  the  comparatively  few  and  simple  points 
I  wish  to  illustrate  with  it.  As  they  are  eminently  injurious 
insects,  it  is  with  no  compunctions  that  I  advise  catching 
several  of  the  moths  and  killing  them,  for  the  pupils  to 
examine. 

Should  they  become  dry  and  stiff,  lay  them  on  some  sup- 
port above  a  damp  sheet  of  paper  or  sponge  and  cover  with 
a  tumbler  or  glass  shade.  The  moist  air  will  soon  relax  the 
organs  and  prevent  their  breaking  when  moved. 

Have  some  pupa  (as  before  advised)  to  show  and 
hatch. 

7.  This  moth  flies  in  the  twilight  hours,  and  is  often  mis- 
taken for  a  humming  bird  as  it  hovers  over  the  flowers. 

8.  Has  16  legs  to  walk  with  when  a  caterpillar,  but  when 
grown  it  has  only  6  legs,  and  4  strong  wings  to  fly  with. 
Its  antennae  are  thickest  in  the  middle. 

9.  The  caterpillar  has  13  segments  to  the  body. 

10.  It  feeds  on  leaves  when  a  caterpillar,  and  on  the  nec- 
tar of  flowers  when  a  moth. 

12.  It  has  a  long  "  tongue  "  to  insert  into  the  flowers  and 
draw  out  the  nectar  with,  which  it  carries  coiled  up  like  a 
spring  when  not  in  use. 

13.  The  caterpillar  has  strong  biting  jaws,  moving  from 
side  to  side. 

14.  All  its  life  it  breathes    through    openings,    called 
44  spiracles,"  in  its  sides.    See  them  on  the  caterpillar  and 
enlarged  in  some  cut  or  drawing. 

17.  Notice  the  color  of  the  wings,  and  the  way  they  are 
folded  when  at  rest. 


72  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Notice  the  color  of  the  caterpillar.    Is  it  always  the  same  ? 

18.  Observe  a  moth  at  rest,  and  compare  its  color,  mark- 
ings, and  ridgelike  back  with  the  color,  lights  and  shades, 
and  ridges  of  a  piece  of  bark,  crevice  in  wood,  or  bunch  of 
dry  twigs. 

Again,  study  the  lights  and  shades  of  a  potato  or  tomato 
plant  as  it  stands  in  the  field,  and  see  if  there  is  any  "  imita- 
tion "  in  the  colorings  of  the  caterpillar. 

Disturb  a  feeding  caterpillar  and  see  how  long  it  will 
keep  its  motionless,  sphinx-like  attitude. 

20.  Notice  the  whirring  sound  which  the  moth  makes 
when  in  flight. 

24.  The  young  is  at  first  called  a  caterpillar.  After  eat- 
ing all  it  needs  and  being  fully  grown,  it  burrows  into  the 
ground  and  changes  to  a  curious  brown  pupa.  This  has 
a  handlelike  tongue-case  and  the  places  for  the  feelers,  eyes, 
and  wings  can  be  distinguished.  Although  seemingly  life- 
less, changes  go  on  under  its  brown  covering  and  at  last 
out  comes  a  perfect  moth  ! 

27.  It  serves  by  carrying  the  pollen  for  the  flowers. 
Some  plants  brought  from  other  countries  do  not  bear  seed 
because  the  flowers  are  too  deep  for  our  insects  to  reach  the 
nectar.  What  common  flower  in  our  gardens  is  much  vis- 
ited by  these  moths  ?  (Petunia).  See  if  you  can  find  any 
others  with  long  tubes  visited  by  them. 

Land  Snail  (No.  6). 

Hanging  to  the  lower  sides  of  stones,  walls,  or  old  logs 
will  be  found  these  snails,  if  any  are  to  be  found  in  the 
neighborhood.  Under  logs,  among  the  decaying  wood,  will 
be  found  the  round,  white  eggs. 

Gather  snails  enough  so  that  at  least  each  pair  of  children 
can  have  one  to  watch.  Should  no  land  snails  be  found, 
look  in  ponds  and  ditches  for  the  pond  snails,  which  can 
well  take  their  place,  and  keep  a  supply  in  an  aquarium, 
to  distribute  in  saucers  of  water  when  needed. 


STEP  V.— ANIMALS.  73 

These  latter  will  lay  their  eggs  in  jellylike  masses  on  the 
glass  or  on  objects  in  the  water. 

A  supply  of  shells  of  either  kind  will  be  helpful,  and  are 
freshest  if  made  by  pouring  boiling  water  on  live  snails  and 
then  pulling  out  the  tough  and  contracted  animal  with  pin- 
cers or  a  hook.  Some  may  object  to  this  as  cruel,  but  it  is 
far  less  so  than  the  starving  to  death  so  commonly  practiced 
by  those  who  are  trying  to  keep  them.  u  Dead  "  shells  can 
always  be  found  about  the  haunts  of  snails,  which  will  do 
fairly  well. 

What  follows  applies  to  the  land  snail.  Pond  snails  dif- 
fer in  some  ways. 

2.  Note  the  way  a  snail  uses  its  tentacles  to  feel  things 
about  it. 

4.  See  how  curiously  the  eyes  are  placed,  on  the  ends  of 
the  long  feelers  (tentacles) ;  and  how  the  snail  tvinks  by 
turning  in  the  eye  and  end  of  the  tentacle,  like  the  turning 
of  a  glove  finger  inside  out. 

7.  The  snail  creeps  with  a  gliding  motion,  leaving  a 
slimy  trail  behind. 

8.  The  fleshy  part  on  which  it  rests  and  by  which  it 
moves  is  called  its  "  foot." 

10.  The  land  snail  lives  on  the  green  parts  of  plants,  and 
when  numerous  does  great  damage. 

12.  This  food  is  rasped  off  with  a  most  remarkable  tongue, 
studded  with  hard  teeth,  set  in  regular  rows.  (See  the  illus- 
trations in  some  book  on  Zoology.) 

15  and  16.  The  soft  body  is  covered  with  a  limy  shell, 
which  is  coiled  and  in  one  piece.  (Drop  a  bit  of  shell  in  a 
little  hydrochloric  acid  and  see  the  dissolving  of  the  limy 
matter.) 

17.  What  colors  has  the  shell,  and  how  arranged  ? 

24.  The  eggs  of  the  land  snail  are  spherical,  and  laid 
singly  under  logs  or  stones. 

This  ends  the  work  of  this  step. 

Review. — None  is  needed  or  desirable. 

Material  put  away. — Take  a  shoe-box  or  similar  box. 


74:  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Label  it  "  Step  V  "  on  the  end,  and  in  it  place  any  things 
gathered  for  the  lessons.  Arrange  so  as  to  keep  vermin  out 
of  any  hair,  skin,  or  feathers  there  may  be,  and  put  away 
for  the  next  class. 

Conclusions.  —The  children  will  now  have  had  a  look  at 
eight  animals.  Their  eyes  have  been  opened  to  some  things 
which  they  did  not  before  notice ;  the  way  has  been  prepared 
for  future  work,  and  their  vocabulary  of  understood  words 
been  increased.  Next  step  in  Animals,  IX. 


STEP  VI.— PLANTS. 
ROOTS  AND  STEMS. 

Object. — Increased  acquaintance  with  plants.  Lessons  in 
form  and  color. 

Time. — In  the  fall  of  the  year,  when  roots  and  stems  are 
abundant  and  mature.  About  ten  lessons,  of  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes  each,  will  be  required;  but  in  every  case 
make  the  lessons  progressive.  Be  sure  each  day  is  an  ad- 
vance on  the  days  before,  and  when  the  material  (or  class) 
is  exhausted,  as  promptly  drop  the  subject  and  take  up  the 
next. 

Material. — Will  need  to  be  mostly  fresh,  and  gathered 
for  each  class.  The  children  who  have  had  the  experience 
of  the  previous  steps  will  be  able  to  aid  in  gathering,  and 
should  have  the  chance. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  points  to  illustrate,  and  mate- 
rial with  which  to  do  it: 

Points  and  Material  from  which  to  choose. 

Hoots. — Tap  (one  main  axis):  Beans,  melon,  morning- 
glory,  etc. 

Conical :  Carrot,  parsnip. 
Fusiform :  Beet,  radish,  ruta  baga. 
Napiform :  Most  turnips,  some  beets. 
Multiple  (no  main  axis) : 
Fibrous  (threadlike) :  Grains,  plantain. 
Tuberous  (tuberlike) :  Dahlia,  sweet  potato. 
Moniliform  (necklacelike) :  White  clover. 
Air  roots,  for  climbing  and  support :  Ivy,  trumpet  creeper, 
Indian  corn. 

(75) 


76  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Stems. — Above  ground:  nearly  all. 

Shape— Round  and  solid :  Almost  any  tree,  rush. 

Fluted  and  hollow :  Equisetum  and  those  of  the  carrot 
family. 

Round  and  hollow :  Grasses,  grains,  and  bamboo. 
Square:  Those  of  mint  family  (catnip,  sal  via),  etc., 
Triangular:  Sedges. 
Half  round :  Corn. 

Joints  (swollen):  Grass,  pinks,  buckwheat,  or  smart- 
weed. 

Joints  (separate) :  Equisetum  ("  scouring  rush  "). 
Bark— Smooth:  Willows,  etc. 
Furrowed  and  ridged :  Blackberry,  cotton  wood. 
Prickles :  Rose,  gooseberry,  blackberry. 
Color — Red:  Willow,  rose,  maple. 
Yellow:  Willow,  grain. 
Green :  Fresh  stems. 
Gray:  Ash. 
Brown:  Cherry,  birch. 

Smell :  Balm  of  Gilead,  pine,  sassafras,  locust,  mint,  etc. 
Taste — Sweetish :  Birch,  locust,  green  corn,  sugar-cane. 
Bitter:  Willows,  cotton  wood,  poplar. 
Spicy:  Sassafras,  mint. 
Wood — In  rings:  Oak,  etc. 

In  threads :  Corn,  etc. 
Pith — Much :  Sumac,  elder,  corn. 

Little :  Most  woody  stems. 
Sap — Watery:  Potato,  etc. 
Colored:  Sumac,  poppy,  milkweed. 
Gummy:  Pine,  fir. 

Underground  stems:  Potatoes,    Solomon's  seal,    sweet 
flag,  crocus,  gladiolus. 

Where  and  how  to  gather  Roots.— It  is  the  early  part  of 
September.  After  school,  invite  a  few  pupils  to  go  with 
you,  and,  taking  a  spade  and  basket,  search  •  the  garden  and 
fields  for  specimens.  Choose  one  or  two  large  and  typi- 
cal roots  of  each  of  the  eight  classes  given,  and  bury  in  sand 


STEP  VI.— PLANTS.  77 

or  moist  (not  wet,  or  it  will  stick)  earth  in  the  cellar  till 
needed. 

The  Lessons.— 1.  Show  the  class  a  typical  tap  root.  Let 
them  tell  all  they  can  observe  about  it,  being  sure  they 
notice  the  single  main  axis,  none  of  whose  branches  ap- 
proach it  in  size.  Get  them  to  name  others,  if  they  can,  and 
each  bring  some  root  to-morrow. 

2.  Have  some  dishes  or  plates  (paper  pie  plates  do  well,  and 
are  cheap  and  light).     Let  one  after  another  hold  up  a  root 
and  tell  about  it — where  found  and  how  got,  and  what  he 
notices.    Lay  the  first  root  on  a  dish.     If  the  class  decides 
the  second  is  like  it,  lay  with  the  first;  if  not,  place  on 
another  dish,  and  so  on,  grouping  them  as  they  come  up. 
When  the  class  have  all  finished,  bring  out  some  type  from 
your  collection  which  they  have  omitted,  and,  saying  noth- 
ing, let  them  decide  about  it.     Let  each  bring  a  different 
root  to-morrow — if  possible,  unlike  any  brought. 

3.  Repeat  yesterday's  programme,  and,  if  need  be,  add 
another  type  yourself,  but  a  bright,  interested  class  will  not 
give  you  the  chance  to  add  many. 

4.  When  all  eight  classes  of  roots  are  represented,  and 
the  children  have  seen  and  talked  of  them,  the  work  advis- 
able at  this  step  is  complete.     Do  not  branch  off  into  com- 
parisons, structure,  uses,  or  any  of  the  other  delightful  les- 
sons that  might  be  taught;  these  will  come  up  in  a  better 
connection  later. 

Where  and  how  to  get  Stems.— Attended  by  several 
pupils  with  baskets,  string  for  tying,  and  sharp  knives 
and  strong  scissors  to  cut,  go  out  into  woods,  orchards,  fruit 
gardens,  and  parks.  Have  a  list  of  one  good  example  in 
each  class  as  given  under  "Points."  The  following  will 
cover  all  the  points : 

Grass:  Select  large,  strong  stems  and  cut  between  the 
joints  with  scissors. 

Equisetum :  Old,  dry  stems  are  best  (cut  between  joints). 

Catnip :  Cut  sections  with  scissors. 

Sedge :  Select  sections  of  large  flowering  stems. 


78  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Corn :  Strip  off  leaves  and  cut  3-inch  pieces  with  scissors. 

Blackberry :  3-inch  bits  of  stem  alike  in  color. 

Red  willow :  3-inch  pieces. 

Ash:  Twigs. 

Cherry :  3-inch  suckers  or  twigs. 

Sassafras :  3-inch  pieces  alike  in  color. 

Locust :  3-inch  twigs. 

Sumac :  Ends  of  twigs. 

Pine:  Twigs. 

Oak:  Select  a  dry  stick  1  to  2  inches  in  diameter  (stem  of 
small  tree  best),  and  with  a  sharp  saw  cut  off  sections  half 
an  inch  long.  These  will  show  the  rings  of  wood  well. 

By  adding  wheat,  parsnip  (flower  stalk),  mint,  pink,  rose, 
and  fir,  nearly  all  the  points  will  be  illustrated  twice. 
Gather  enough  for  each  child  to  have  a  complete  assort- 
ment, and  a  few  spare  ones  for  teacher  and  new  pupils. 

Potatoes  and  crocus  corms:  Get  or  buy  but  have  both. 

The  Lessons. — Adopt  the  sorting  plan.  When  ready, 
give  each  child  a  set  of  specimens,  either  in  a  bundle  (see 
Step  IV)  or  in  the  large  trays  used  for  seed  sorting.  In 
either  case  provide  a  label  for  each,  so  that  the  careful  and 
obedient  shall  not  suffer  from  the  picking  to  pieces  and  de- 
struction of  others. 

This  very  destructiveness  will  seem  an  insurmountable 
obstacle  to  some  teachers,  but  it  will  correct  itself  if  judi- 
ciously left  alone  to  bear  its  own  fruit. 

Give  good  advice,  suggest  the  need  of  self-control  in  all 
that  is  done,  and  then  the  reckless  pupils  will  find  themselves 
needing  the  twig  they  broke,  or  unable  to  join  with  the 
rest  in  the  study  of  pith  or  sap,  because  they  so  carelessly 
chewed  up  the  specimens  in  tasting.  Your  warm  recom- 
mendation of  those  who  can  return  a  complete  and  well-used 
set  at  the  close  will  also  be  a  prize  to  be  coveted,  and  more 
and  more  sought  as  the  lessons  advance.  Such  pupils  need 
help,  and  it  is  a  teacher's  privilege  to  use  these  opportunities 
to  extend  the  helping  hand. 

Let  the  class  examine  the  specimens  a  while,  and  then  ask 


STEP  VI.— PLANTS.  79 

them  in  turn  to  tell  what  they  have  observed.  As  each 
speaks  of  something,  have  the  others  find  the  same  specimen 
and  see  it  for  themselves.  In  this  way  all  will  observe  to- 
gether, and  few  errors  will  pass  unchallenged. 

Each  point  dwelt  upon  should  be  made  the  basis  for  sort- 
ing: Kate,  for  example,  notices  the  red  bark.  How  many 
red-barked  twigs  have  we  ?  When  all  can  hold  up  two 
(willow  and  blackberry),  ask,  Are  these  the  same  ? 

"  This  one  is  smooth."    It  is  the  red- willow. 

"  This  has  prickles."    The  blackberry. 

How  many  have  prickles  or  thorns  ?  How  many  have 
smooth  bark  ?  Who  notices  something  new  ? 

"A  three-cornered  stem."    It  is  of  a  sedge. 

Can  you  find  others  ? 

"  No,  but  here  is  a  square  one." 

Good  !  Are  there  other  square  stems  ?  Who  notices 
anything  about  this  one  ? 

"  Hollow." 

True  enough.     Are  there  other  hollow  stems  ? 

"  Two." 

Hold  them  up  and  let  us  see  how  they  differ. 

u  This  is  a  fishing  pole." 

Why  do  you  call  it  so,  Ralph  ? 

"  You  can  take  it  to  pieces  and  put  it  together  like  a  fish- 
ing pole." 

So  you  can !  We  call  it  "  horsetail "  also,  because  an- 
other part  of  the  plant  looks  like  a  bunch  of  long,  green 
hair.  The  others  ? 

"  This  round  stem  is  grass." 

How  many  round  stems  have  you  ? 

In  this  way,  aided  by  a  cautious  hint  now  and  then  as 
the  pupils  exhaust  their  resources,  the  whole  ground  will  be 
covered  in  a  helpful  and  pleasing  manner. 

Potatoes  will  sooner  or  later  be  called  in  question  as  a 
root  and  not  a  stem.  Having  brought  out  the  fact  that  the 
"  eyes  "  sprout,  ask  which  of  the  roots  had  these  eyes.  They 
will  be  very  apt  to  say  "  sweet  potatoes."  In  any  case,  place 


8Q  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

the  ends  of  the  potato  and  the  root  they  think  like  it  in  a 
dish  of  water  to  sprout,  and  see  if  it  is  so.  They  will  then 
be  ready  to  see  a  difference  between  roots  and  stems — stems 
having  buds,  especially  at  the  end  opposite  to  where  they 
were  fastened  to  the  mother  plant,  while  roots  seldom  have 
them  except  at  the  crown,  where  a  piece  of  the  true  stem 
remains.  The  crocus  can  be  shown  to  be  a  stem  by  care- 
fully removing  the  dry  coats  and  finding  the  buds.  More 
differences  will  appear  when  leaves  are  taken  up. 

Now  let  the  class  find  specimens  and  bring  as  formerly 
in  the  case  of  roots.  This  will  connect  the  work  with  nature, 
and,  while  interesting  the  home  circle,  greatly  aid  the  pupils. 

Collections  can  be  sewed  on  cards  or  made  in  any  way  the 
taste  of  the  pupils  may  direct. 

Color  will  be  frequently  spoken  of  in  both  roots  and 
stems.  Have  a  color  chart  or  some  standard  to  refer  to. 

Form. — The  constant  comparisons  and  the  drawing 
which  can  be  introduced  will  add  much  to  the  pupils'  ideas, 
but  let  this  be  a  secondary  consideration — not  expanding  the 
lessons  too  much,  or  the  point  will  be  lost. 

Language  will  flow  naturally  and  readily  under  the  in- 
spiration of  such  work.  The  child  has  something  to  tell 
about,  and  the  teacher  need  only  look  to  the  way  it  is  told. 
Beware,  however,  of  too  constant  criticism.  It  worries  all, 
and  to  no  profit,  as  the  child  can  not  take  many  thoughts  at 
a  time. 

Review. — Would  advise  none.  If  taught  correctly,  there 
will  be  nothing  which  should  be  added  now. 

Material  put  away.— Give  the  children  most  of  the 
things.  Let  them  plant  the  crocus  conns  in  the  school  gar- 
den. The  oak  sections  can  be  saved,  and  in  a  box  might  be 
laid  two  of  each  kind  of  thing  that  will  not  decay,  as  refer- 
ence may  come  up  in  other  work,  and  even  a  dried-up  twig 
be  helpful  at  the  moment. 

The  next  step  in  Plants  is  X — Leaves.  Would  advise 
the  teacher  to  see  at  once  about  the  pressing  of  leaves  and 
gathering  of  material  there  recommended. 


STEP  VII.— THE  SKIES.    (II.  THE  MOON.) 

[  This  is  to  continue  the  studies  of  Step  II.      Time,  preparation  of  the 
teacher,  etc.,  are  spoken  of  there.] 

THE  LESSONS. 

1.  Sunshine.— Notice  this— its  heat  and  light  and  where 
they  come  from. 

Call  attention  to  the  blessing  this  sunshine  is  to  plants 
and  animals. 

2.  Starshine.— Is  it  like  sunshine  ?    (In  giving  light.) 
How  unlike  ?    (No  appreciable  heat.) 

Talk  of  the  uses  of  the  stars  shining  in  the  sky. 

3.  Moonshine.— See  the  full  moon,  and  that  it  is  opposite 
to  the  sun — on  the  other  side  of  the  earth.     Of  what  use  is 
moonshine  ? 

Notice  the  flaming  looks  of  westerly  windows  at  sun- 
set; the  reflection  of  lamps  and  the  fire  in  mirrors;  the 
apparent  light  in  the  windows  of  a  house  from  the  reflec- 
tion of  street  lamps,  head  lights  of  locomotives,  etc. ;  the 
lighting  up  of  the  clouds  or  smoke  from  the  open  doors  of 
locomotives,  rolling-mill  or  smelting-furnace  chimneys,  or 
the  lights  of  a  city. 

These  will  show  the  results  of  reflection,  and  prepare  for 
what  follows. 

4.  Moon's  Face.-—Call  attention  to  the  dark  patches  on 
the  full  moon.     Read  or  tell  the  story  in  Hiawatha  showing 
what  the  Indians  thought  this  u  face  "  was. 

5.  The  shape  of  the  moon  seems  to  vary  (phases).*    Let 
the  pupils  walk  around  a  globe  lighted  by  a  dark  lantern  in 

*  See  Lockyer,  p.  122,  and  his  Science  Primer  of  Astronomy,  p.  43,  etc. 
8  (81) 


82  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

a  dark  room,  and  these  shapes  can  be  easily  explained.  Be 
sure,  however,  that  they  understand  that  the  dark  lantern 
is  only  a  convenience,  the  sun  really  giving  light  in  all 
directions. 

Next  substitute  a  small  lamp  for  the  dark  lantern,  and 
have  a  small  globe  carried  contrary  to  the  movement  of  the 
hands  of  a  watch  around  the  lamp.  If  the  class  is  gathered 
on  one  side  of  the  room,  the  small  globe  (moon)  will  show 
these  phases  again  and  quite  a  correct  idea  will  be  obtained. 
Notice  the  round  shadow  cast  by  the  ball  on  the  wall. 

6.  Motion  of  the  Moon.— The  direction  about  the  earth  is 
shown  in  carrying  the  globe  (moon)  around  the  lamp  in  a 
direction  contrary  to  the  movement  of  the  hands  of  a  watch 
laid  on  its  back. 

7.  The  Months. — These  are  determined  from  this  motion 
about  the  earth,  and  are  nearly  thirty  days  (Lockyer,  p.  223). 
Let  the  class  find  this  out  by  watching  the  time  from  new 
moon  to  new  moon.    While  doing  this,  learn  the  names 
and  order. 

Thirty  days  hath  September, 

April,  June,  and  November  ; 

All  the  rest  have  thirty-one, 

Save  February,  which  alone 

Hath  twenty-eight;  and  one  day  more 

We  add  to  it  one  year  in  four. 

The  meaning  of  these  names  is  interesting:  January  is 
named  in  honor  of  Janus,  the  Roman  god  of  the  sun  and 
year.  He  had  two  faces — one  looking  back  on  the  past 
(old  year),  and  one  forward  into  the  future  (new  year). 
February  was  named  from  a  Roman  feast  in  that  month, 
and  means  to  purify.  March  was  named  in  honor  of  Mars, 
the  god  of  war.  April  comes  from  a  word  meaning  to  open, 
in  reference  to  the  opening  of  the  earth  to  the  seed  or  the 
first  bringing  forth  of  new  fruits.  May  is  named  from  the 
goddess  Maia,  a  daughter  of  Atlas  (who  was  supposed  to 
hold  the  world  on  his  shoulders)  and  mother  of  the  winged 
god  Mercury.  June  was  sacred  to  Juno,  wife  of  Jupiter, 


STEP  VII.— THE  SKIES. 


83 


and  so  queen  of  the  gods.  July  was  named  in  honor  of 
Julius  Caesar ;  August,  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Augustus. 
September  from  a  word  meaning  "  seventh,"  as  it  once  was 
reckoned  the  seventh  month.  October  means  "  eighth " 
for  the  same  reason.  November,  means  u  ninth."  Decem- 
ber, from  a  word  meaning  "  tenth." 


8.  Show  the  beautiful  star  Arcturus,  by  following  the 
curve  of  the  handle  to  the  u  dipper  "  in  May  to  July. 


84  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

9.  Northern  Crown  can  also  be  seen  near  Arcturus.  With 
it  is  connected  the  story  of  Theseus,  Ariadne,  and  the  Mino- 
taur whom  he  slew  in  the  famous  labyrinth  built  for  King 
Minos  in  Crete.*  Below  is  the  head  of  the  serpent. 

As  to  whether  myths  shall  be  given  children,  each 
teacher  must  decide ;  but  so  many  of  these  tales  should  be 
known  to  understand  the  allusions  of  our  best  writers,  and 
the  names  are  so  interwoven  with  the  constellations,  that  I 
shall  refer  to  those  known  as  adding  much  of  interest  to  the 
study.  Beware,  however,  that  these  tales  of  unworthy  he- 
roes, gods,  and  goddesses  are  in  no  degree  placed  on  the  same 
plane  as  the  characters  of  the  Bible. 

Cards. — Let  the  class  prick,  sew,  paste,  draw,  or  color 
these  constellations  and  add  them  to  the  groups  of  the 
previous  step  for  home  use.  A  neat  portfolio  or  case  might 
well  be  made  to  hold  them  all,  and  decorated  on  the  outside 
with  appropriate  designs  (when  the  study  is  completed  and 
they  have  material  to  draw  from). 

Next  step  in  The  Skies,  see  XVI. 

*See  Bulfinch's  Age  of  Fable,  pp.  184-201,  in  1881  edition. 


STEP  VIII.— SORTING  OF  MINERALS. 

The  metals  of  Step  III  were  more  or  less  familiar  to  the 
child  in  the  home  life.  Minerals  are  less  so,  and  hence  a 
step  in  advance. 

For  these  lessons  the  same  trays  and  boxes  used  before 
will  be  needed ;  also  the  following  list  of  minerals,  which 
experience  has  shown  to  be  well  arranged  to  cover  the 
ground : 

1.  Sulphur  (or  brimstone). 

2.  Graphite  (or  stove  blacking). 

3.  Galena. 

4.  Pyrite— u  Fool's  gold." 

5.  Bock  salt. 

6.  Magnetite. 

7.  Hematite  (red  iron  ore). 

8.  Limonite  (brown  iron  ore). 

9.  Quartz  crystal. 

10.  Quartz  (glassy,  rose,  smoky,  or  milky). 

11.  Flint,  jasper,  or  agate. 

12.  Asbestos. 

13.  Mica. 

14.  Feldspar. 

15.  Talc  (soapstone  or  "  French  chalk  "). 

16.  Serpentine. 

17.  Calcite  (rhomb  crystal.     Guard  it  carefully  from  get- 
ting scratched). 

18.  Chalk. 

The  fragments  should  be  about  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut 
or  English  walnut.  Get  enough  so  that  each  pupil  can  have 
a  complete  set. 

Sulphur,  graphite,  talc,  and  chalk  can  often  be  had  at 

(85) 


86  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

wholesale  druggists',  who  will  let  you  select  the  smaller 
pieces,  and  so  save  the  waste  from  breaking  larger. 

Rock  salt  can  be  had  at  a  "  feed  "  store. 

Magnetite,  hematite,  and  limonite,  at  blast  furnaces ;  the 
latter  in  the  soil  about  iron  springs. 

Flint,  jasper,  agates,  and  quartz,  along  beaches.  (Flint 
'*  flakes  "  are  common  wherever  Indians  used  to  camp.) 

Asbestos  and  mica,  of  hardware  or  stove  dealers. 

Feldspar,  in  pebbles  and  bowlders. 

The  others  will  probably  have  to  be  purchased  from  some 
dealer  in  minerals,  to  whom  send  a  list  of  what  kinds  and 
how  many  of  each  you  want ;  explain  the  use  you  intend 
to  make  of  them,  and  his  prices  will  generally  be  reasonable. 

Also  get  pieces  of  window  glass,  one  to  two  inches  square, 
at  the  paint  store,  similar  bits  of  sheet  copper  at  the  tin- 
smith's, and  small  pieces  of  hard,  un glazed  tile  at  dealers  in 
mantels  and  tile  floors  and  hearths,  or  rough,  white  porce- 
lain (broken  lampshade,  etc.)  for  "  streak  plates." 

Specimens  of  the  same  mineral  vary  somewhat,  hence, 
having  obtained  them,  compare  them  in  the  following  points, 
which  will  apply  in  most  cases : 

1.  All   are   minerals,  being   homogeneous,  like   bread, 
sugar,  or  tallow. 

2.  Color. — Graphite,  pyrite,  galena,  magnetite,  and  hema- 
tite have  a  metallic  color  (like  metals). 

Sulphur,  rock  salt,  quartz,  etc.,  are  unmetallic. 

3.  Streak. — The  following  leave  a  mark  when  rubbed  on 
white,  unglazed  tile :    Sulphur  to  limonite  (1  to  8)  and  talc 
to  chalk  (15  to  18). 

4.  Hardness. — Graphite,  talc,  and  chalk  can  be  scratched 
by  the  thumb  nail  (hardness  of  1). 

Sulphur,  galena,  rock  salt,  mica:  thumb  nail  will  not 
scratch,  nor  will  they  scratch  copper  (2  to  2  i). 

Magnetite,  hematite,  limonite,  serpentine,  and  calcite 
scratch  copper  but  not  glass  (3  to  5). 

Pyrite,  quartz,  flint,  and  feldspar,  scratch  glass  with  more 
or  less  ease  (6  and  more). 


STEP  VIII.— SORTING   OF   MINERALS.  87 

5.  Magnetic.— Magnetite. 

6.  Kock  salt,  quartz,  mica,  and  calcite  are  more  or  less 
transparent. 

Sulphur,  and  thin  edges  of  others,  translucent. 
Graphite,  galena,  pyrite,  etc.,  opaque. 

7.  Calcite    (if    transparent)    when    laid    over    writing 
makes  it  look  double. 

8.  All  those  mentioned  in  2  having  metallic  color  also 
have  the  luster  (shine)  of  metals. 

Rock  salt  and  quartz  are  glassy. 

Sulphur  is  resinous. 

Mica,  feldspar,  talc,  and  calcite  have  a  pearly  luster. 

Serpentine  is  greasy. 

Asbestos  is  silky. 

Limonite,  chalk,  etc.,  are  dull  (no  shine). 

9.  The  careful  breaking  of  fragments  of  the  cheaper 
minerals  with  a  hammer  will  well  repay  the  cost  and  noise. 

Sulphur,  galena,  rock  salt,  and  calcite  are  brittle — crum- 
ble under  gentle  blows. 

Magnetite,  hematite  and  flint  are  often  very  tough — re- 
quire hard  blows. 

Graphite,  asbestos,  and  talc  are  flexible — gradually 
crush,  like  moist  clay. 

Mica  is  elastic — snaps  back  when  bent. 

10.  Galena,  rock   salt,  mica,  feldspar,  and  calcite  have 
perfect  cleavage — break  with  smooth  faces,  straight  edges, 
and  regular  angles.) 

11.  Asbestos  is  fibrous  in  structure. 

Galena,  rock  salt,  mica,  etc.,  are  more  or  less  evidently 
made  up  of  layers — lamellar. 
Magnetite  is  often  granular. 

12.  Galena  (cubic),  pyrite  (cubic),  rock  salt  (cubic),  quartz 
(hexagonal),  calcite  (rhomb),  should  show  the  regular  faces 
and  angles  of  crystals.     All  these  except  quartz  break  into 
smaller  cubes  and  rhombs. 

13.  Galena,  pyrite,  magnetite,  hematite,  and  limonite  will 
be  heavy. 


88  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Sulphur,  light. 

Graphite  and  talc  will  feel  soapy. 

Asbestos  feels  silky,  and  others,  including  crystals,  can 
be  told  by  evident  peculiarities  of  feeling. 

14.  Limonite  and  chalk  will  adhere  to  the  tongue  and 
smell  of  clay  when  wet. 

15.  Rock  salt  has  taste,  and  is  soluble  in  water. 

16.  Sulphur  will  burn. 

The  Lesson.— Take  as  many  trays  as  you  have  pupils; 
place  in  each  eighteen  small  boxes,  and  in  each  box  one 
specimen  of  each  of  the  eighteen  minerals  you  have  selected. 
This  will  enable  you  to  see  at  a  glance  whether  the  full  num- 
ber of  specimens  is  in  the  tray  when  given  out  or  returned. 

A.  Give  out  the  boxes,  and  encourage  the  children  to  dis- 
cover ways  of  grouping  (color,  luster,  weight,  etc.).     Pass 
among  the  class.     Commend  warmly  any  success,  but  do  it 
so  that  others  will  not  be  tempted  to  copy.     Smooth  over 
failure  and  suggest  as  to  fresh  trial.     Introduce  the  streak 
plate,  copper,  glass,  and  magnet,  as  mistakes  or  the  advance 
of  the  pupil  may  require. 

B.  When  by  this  individual  work  a  majority  of  the  class 
have  made  such  tests  and  observations  as  they  seem  able  to, 
turn  it  into  a  general  exercise  and  review. 

How  many  of  your  minerals  look  like  metals  ? 

How  many  are  unmetallic  ? 

How  many  leave  a  mark  on  streak  plate  ? 

How  many  do  not  ? 

Put  those  that  will  scratch  glass  in  one  box. 

Of  the  rest,  pick  out  those  which  scratch  copper. 

Now  find  those  too  hard  to  scratch  with  the  thumb  nail. 

How  many  are  left  ?    Hold  them  up  (3). 

How  many  will  the  magnet  pick  up  ? 

Put  those  through  which  you  can  read  printed  words 
together. 

Now  those  which  light  comes  through,  but  too  dimly  to 
read. 

How  many  are  opaque  ? 


STEP  VIII.— SORTING  OF  MINERALS.  89 

How  many  have  a  glassy  look  ? 

Can  you  find  one  that  looks  like  rosin  ? 

How  many  are  pearly  ? 

Can  you  find  a  greasy  looking  specimen  ? 

A  silky  one  ?    Hold  it  up. 

Are  there  any  which  have  no  shine  ? 

How  many  broke  easily  when  pounded  ? 

Hold  up  those  which  crushed. 

Hold  up  the  one  which  sprang  back  when  bent. 

How  many  broke  with  smooth  sides  and  straight  edges  ? 

Hold  up  a  mineral  composed  of  fibers. 

Some  made  up  of  layers. 

Are  any  made  of  granules  stuck  together  ? 

How  many  are  crystals  ? 

Of  these,  how  many  are  cubelike  ? 

Hold  up  a  six-sided  crystal. 

Hold  up  a  rhomb. 

Lay  the  rhomb  on  printed  words  ;  what  do  you  see  ? 
Turn  it  slowly  around  and  notice. 

How  many  are  heavy  ? 

Which  is  the  lightest  one  ? 

Hold  up  those  which  feel  soapy. 

Which  feels  silky  ? 

Which  two  stick  to  your  tongue  ? 

Which  tastes  ?    How  ? 

Which  smell  like  clay  ? 

How  many  will  burn  ? 

(Let  names  be  incidental,  and  only  given  when  asked  for.) 

C.  Now  remove  the  calcite  (which  will  be  injured)  and 
chalk  (which  will  soil  the  others),  and  empty  several  sets  to- 
gether in  shallow  trays.  Place  these  in  the  windows  or  on 
the  table,  and  let  each  child  pick  out  a  new  set,  using  his 
magnet,  tile,  etc.,  to  aid. 

When  it  is  done,  bring  to  you  for  inspection.  If  correct, 
and  all  his  tools  are  returned,  take  it  and  let  him  get  another. 

Should  mistakes  occur,  let  him  correct  them  with  the 
least  possible  help. 


90  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

The  brightest  pupils  can  at  last  be  permitted  to  show  (not 
tell)  the  dull  ones  how  to  do  the  selecting. 

Remarks. — Thus  will  end  lessons  full  of  new  and  helpful 
ideas.  Especially  have  I  found  mineral  work  to  result  in 
considerate  decision — a  valuable  trait  for  any  one. 

As  to  the  pleasure  from  such  work,  try  it  and  see! 

Get  eighteen  cigar  or  candy  boxes.  Gum  a  label  on  the 
end  and  let  volunteers  who  have  proved  their  honesty  sort 
the  different  kinds  into  them,  and  pile  on  some  shelf  for  the 
next  class. 

If  now  some  way  can  be  presented  for  those  willing  to 
earn  (by  conduct,  lessons,  etc.,  but  not  money)  a  set  to  take 
home  to  **  show  "  and  "  start  a  collection,"  another  great 
point  will  be  gained. 

Time  and  Expense. — Fifteen  lessons,  of  twenty  minutes, 
will  usually  be  enough.  If  all  the  specimens  are  bought, 
they  will  cost  from  1  to  1|  cent  each,  or  $6  to  $9  for  the  540 
specimens ;  but  the  clear  calcite  and  crystal  of  quartz  will 
cost  5  to  8  cents  each,  and  if  the  expense  is  too  great,  omit 
them  or  any  others  in  my  list,  getting  such  as  you  can,  and 
giving  the  lessons  any  way. 

For  next  step  in  minerals,  see  XIV — Rocks. 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS. 

Object. — Step  V  introduced  us  to  the  boy,  and  then  to 
some  typical  animals  found  near  home.  This  step  is  ar- 
ranged to — 

1.  Extend  the  work  done  among  home  animals. 

2.  Introduce  to  forms  more  u  wild  "  and  still  familiar. 

3.  To  emphasize  certain  desirable  traits  for  their  bearing 
on  human  morals. 

4.  To  extend  the  child's  range  of  ideas  and  the  exact  use 
of  words. 

Time. — Late  spring.  About  50  lessons,  of  15  minutes 
each,  will  be  needed,  averaging  5  points  a  day.  This  will 
require  vigorous  work  and  thorough  preparation,  but  there 
will  be  added  gain  in  both. 

Material. — Gather  wool  and  woolen  cloths,  and  horse- 
hair cloth ;  the  hoofs  of  a  horse  and  sheep ;  skull  of  gnaw- 
ing animal,  to  show  the  self -sharpen  ing  and  continuously 
growing  teeth ;  the  skull  of  a  woodpecker,  if  possible,  with 
the  long  tongue  bones ;  eggs  of  robin,  woodpecker,  dove, 
duck,  and  turtle;  old  nests  of  robin,  woodpecker,  swallow, 
dove,  and  mud  wasp ;  skins  of  robin,  woodpecker,  hummer, 
owl,  and  shell  of  turtle ;  down  of  a  duck  and  ctenoid  scales 
of  a  large  perchlike  fish. 

Sometimes  things  can  not  be  obtained  fresh,  and  to  meet 
emergencies  I  have  kept  a  stock  of  such  hard-shelled  animals 
as  crayfish,  crabs,  beetles,  etc.,  prepared  with  the  following 
preserving  fluid,  which  has  not  only  preserved  them  from 
decay  but  a]  so  kept  them  flexible,  so  that  the  parts  could  be 
easily  studied.  Choose  fresh  specimens,  and  at  once  inject 
them  with  small  syringe  full  of  the  fluid  and  lay  on  papers 
in  shallow  trays  till  the  fluid  is  absorbed  and  the  extra  water 
has  dried  away.  Then  keep  in  boxes  or  drawers  for  use. 


92  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

RECEIPT  FOR  GERMAN  PRESERVING  FLUID. — (From  Popu- 
lar Science  News,  Boston) : 

Water  (rain  water  best)   .        .       (by  weight)  620  parts. 

Borax 10  " 

Sulphate  of  potassa 4  " 

Salt 5  " 

Nitrate  of  soda 3  " 

Carbonate  of  potassa 9  " 

Arsenious  acid 2  " 

Glycerin 300  " 

Alcohol .        .        .  50  " 

The  arsenious  acid  and  carbonate  of  potassium  are  dis- 
solved together  by  the  aid  of  heat,  and  added  to  the  solution 
of  the  other  ingredients  and  filtered. 

The  Lessons  and  Preparation  of  the  Teacher.— The 
animals  chosen  for  this  step  are  those  best  studied  in  late 
spring  and  early  summer.  If  not  found  in  the  section 
where  the  lessons  are  taught,  choose  equivalent  substitutes 
and  omit  those  given. 

The  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  taken  up  is  immaterial. 
One  will  do  as  well  as  another  to  begin  or  end  with,  except 
as  some  will  be  easy  to  get  early  and  others  not  appear  till 
later.  I  have  arranged  them  in  the  order  found  best  for  my 
own  locality,  placing  the  cat  first,  to  refresh  the  memory 
of  the  class  and  get  it  in  working  order. 

The  following  outline  is  for  the  aid  of  the  teacher — not  to 
be  read  or  told  nor  even  seen  by  the  pupils. 

Cat*  (No.  0jf  f). 

1.  Cats  are  land  animals,  and  much  dislike  water. 

2.  A  cat's  whiskers  are  very  sensitive  to  touch,  and  enable 
her  to  judge  as  to  whether  she  can  get  through  a  hole,  etc. 

3.  Her  ears  are  large  and  her  hearing  very  good. 

4.  Her  eyes  are  large  and  keen.     What  shape  is  the 

*  Have  one  before  the  class. 

t  Numbers  refer  to  chosen  animals  or  "  Points  to  Teach  "  of  Step  V. 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.   93 

pupil  ?  Take  a  cat  into  a  dark  closet  for  a  few  moments 
and  then  bring  her  suddenly  into  the  light,  so  that  the  class 
can  see  the  pupil  contract. 

7.  Note  how  a  cat  walks  on  her  toes. 

8.  Her  toes  are  5  on  front  feet  and  4  on  hind  feet. 
Her  claws  are  sharp  and  retractile. 

10.  She  nourishes  her  kittens  with  milk. 

12.  Her  tongue  is  rough,  and  is  used  to  clean  the  meat 
from  bones,  dress  her  fur,  and  lap  up  liquid  food. 

13.  Notice  how  far  back  her  mouth  is  extended.    This 
enables  her  to  use  her  tearing  teeth  more  freely. 

14.  Her  blood  is  warm. 

15.  She  sheds  her  hair  every  spring  after  the  cold  has 
passed,  and  gets  a  thinner  coat  for  summer. 

17.  Her  teeth  are  white.    And  eyes?    How  do  they  look 
in  the  dark  ? 

19.  If  hurt  or  in  danger,  she  defends  herself  and  young 
with  teeth,  claws,  and  attitude. 

20.  Cats  have  quite  a  language.    The  purr  of  contented 
satisfaction  and  the  asking  mew  are  familiar.     Among  her 
own  kind  the  debate  may  wax  so  warm  as  to  cause  squalls 
of  displeasure  and  spitting. 

21.  Cats  are  social  in  their  play,  especially  when  young. 

23.  The  kittens  receive  considerable  training  in  the  arts 
of  cat  life.     See  if  the  pupils  have  observed  any  cases  of 
training. 

24.  The  young  are  called  kittens,  and  are  born  blind 
and  very  dependent  on  the  mother's  care.    Why  do  young 
cats  need  parents  ? 

25.  The  instinctive  hiding  of  her  kittens  by  a  cat  is  very 
interesting,  and  common  enough  to  be  familiar  to  many 
children.     If,  when  she  supposes  them  safe,  they  are  dis- 
turbed, she  often  carries  them  one  by  one  to  another  place. 
This  might  be  tested  by  some  one  of  the  class  who  has  a  cat 
with  kittens  at  home. 

26.  The  cat  shows  great  patience  in  waiting  for  mice, 
etc.,  and  when  thus  watching  and  preparing  to  spring  is  a 


94  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

study  for  a  painter.  Her  quick  ears  and  keen  eyes  keep 
her  well  posted  as  to  all  that  is  going  on,  and  I  have  selected 
her  as  an  example  of  watchfulness.  She  is  very  neat.  In 
connection  with  her  habits  of  washing  after  meals  can  be 
told  the  fable  of  the  sparrow  rebuking  the  cat  for  not  wash- 
ing, and  why  they  now  always  eat  first. 

27.  Cats  are  useful  as  they  destroy  injurious  rats,  mice, 
etc. 

28.  They  give  fur,  which  is  used   for  very  handsome 
robes,  etc. 

The  Crayfish  (No.  7).* 

Collect.  Soon  after  the  ice  is  out  of  the  ditches  and 
ponds,  take  an  insect  net  (if  one  is  not  at  hand,  make  a 
hoop  of  one  end  of  a  hickory  branch,  or  anything  that  can 
be  bent  and  fastened  to  a  handle,  and  on  it  sew  a  shallow 
bag  of  fine  meshed  material),  and,  pushing  it  under  leaves  or 
grass  in  the  water,  work  it  about  a  few  seconds  and  then 
lift  it  out  and  turn  over  into  a  wide  pan  (milk  pan)  of 
water.  A  surprising  number  of  wonderful  things  will  re- 
ward such  search,  which  can  be  placed  in  a  wide  bowl  at 
home  and  kept.  Among  them  will  be  crayfish.  Get 
enough  of  these  so  as  to  have  a  small  one  for  every  pair  of 
pupils,  and  especially  try  to  have  one  with  eggs,  which  are 
laid  very  early  in  the  spring  and  carried  by  the  mother  un- 
der her  long  abdomen.  Provide  deep  dishes  (bowls)  of  water 
to  distribute  them  to  the  class  in  for  the  lesson,  and  then 
develop  the  following  points : 

4.  Its  eyes  are  on  the  ends  of  movable  stalks. 

7.  It  swims  backward. 

8.  Has  ten  legs,  and  the  tail  is  used  to  swim  with. 

10.  Its  food  mainly  consists  of  dead  animals,  etc.,  found 
in  the  water,  although  it  will  catch  live  food  when  able. 

13.  The  jaws  move  from  side  to  side. 

14.  It  breathes  the  air  in  water  by  means  of  gills  along 

*  Read  Chap.  I  in  Huxley's  Crayfish. 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.   95 

the  sides  of  the  body,  which  are  protected  by  the  overhang- 
ing edges  of  the  shell. 

15.  The  crayfish  has  a  jointed,  limy  shell.     (Test  some 
bits  in  acid.) 

16.  This  is  its  skeleton,  and,  being  so  hard  and  outside,  it 
could  not  grow  any  bigger  were  it  not  that  at  times  a  soft 
new  shell  begins  to  grow  under  the  old,  which  at  last  splits 
and  is  cast  off,  even  to  the  covering  of  the  eyes  and  joints 
of  the  big  claws.     (If  a  number  of  young  crayfish  are  kept, 
this  molting  can  frequently  be  observed.) 

18.  Note  how  the  color  of  the  crayfish  harmonizes  with 
its  surroundings,  and  even  varies  according  to  where  found. 

19.  When  molested,  it  first  attempts  to  escape  and  hide. 
Failing  in  this,  it  defends  itself  with  its  great  pincers. 

22.  Crayfish  dig  wells  to  live  in  when  the  waters  of  pond 
or  ditch  dry  away.     These  holes  are  dug  deeper  and  deeper 
as  the  drought  of  summer  comes  on,  and  the  clay  is  piled 
about  the  mouth  of  the  hole,  which  on  the  prairies  of  the 
central  United  States  must  amount  to  quite  a  layer  brought 
up  each  year. 

Along  streams  they  make  holes  in  banks,  and,  their  num- 
bers being  great,  they  become  a  by  no  means  insignificant 
factor  in  the  weakening  of  levees  such  as  are  along  the 
Mississippi,  and  the  filling  of  channels  with  mud. 

23.  The  mother  cares  for  the  young  for  some  time,  they 
fleeing  to  the  protection  of  her  long  abdomen  when  danger 
threatens. 

24.  The  eggs  are  carried  attached  to  the  swimmerets  of 
the  mother  till  they  hatch. 

27.  Crayfish  aid  plants  by  the  fresh  earth  they  bring  to 
the  surface,  and  help  to  keep  the  waters  pure  and  sweet  by 
removing  all  decaying  matter. 

The  Robin  (No.  jti). 

This  is  another  early  comer,  and  should  be  taken  up  at 
that  time,  although  the  subject  can  not  be  concluded  till 
much  later.  The  points  to  emphasize  with  this  bird  are— 


96  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

4.  Its  keen  sight  for  worms  and  caterpillars  in  the  grass. 

7.  It  hops  on  the  ground. 

8.  Has  two  legs.    The  part  of  the  leg  from  the  toes  to  the 
joint  is  called  the  tarsus. 

10.  Its  food  is  worms,  caterpillars,  and  fruits. 

11.  Has  a  bill. 

17.  Note  the  color  of  the  feathers  and  eggs ;  especially 
the  upper  side  of  the  mother. 

18.  Notice  how  inconspicuous  the  mother  robin  is  when 
in  her  nest. 

20.  Robins  sing,  and  also  have  a  call  of  alarm. 

21.  They  are  social   in  migration;   gathering  in  flocks 
before  going  off  in  the  fall,  and  appearing  in  companies  in 
the  spring. 

22.  They  nest  in  trees,  and  use  mud  in  the  construction. 

23.  Both  mother  and  father  aid  in  constructing  the  nest. 

24.  The  young  are  called  birdlings. 

25.  An  early  comer,  note  how  she  instinctively  builds  a 
thick  mud  nest  to  better  enable  her  to  keep  her  eggs  warm 
through  the  changes  of  weather.     Are  her  eggs  seen  from 
above,  or  below  ?    Is  blue  a  good  color  under  the  circum- 
stances and  surroundings  ?   Where  are  the  robins  in  winter  ? 
Remember  their  food,  and  then  try  to  think  why  they  go 
away  south  in  the  fall. 

26.  Robins  show  great  patience  in  setting  on  their  eggs, 
and  tenderness  and  self-denial  in  the  care  and  labor  for  the 
helpless  young.     Have  also  chosen  the  robin  as  a  type  of 
merry  good  nature,  the  rollicking  song  seeming  full  of 
jollity. 

27.  Their  service  consists  in  destroying  injurious  insects 
and  in  pleasing  with  their  cheerful  song. 

The  Perch  (No.  27). 

This  type  of  the  fishes  with  toothed  scales  and  spines  in 
their  fins  should  also  be  studied  early  in  the  season.  Get 
some  small  ones  for  the  class  to  examine  at  one  of  the  les- 
sons. 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.   97 

8.  The  perch  has  spiny  rays  to  its  fins.  Note  that  the 
"  tail "  is  &fin.  How  many  fins  ?  How  arranged  ? 

10.  It  eats  other  fish  and  water  animals  such  as  worms, 
crayfish,  and  frogs.  , 

Lead  the  class  to  notice  how  the  white  belly  of  the  perch 
(like  the  frog)  causes  it  to  resemble  the  openings  among  the 
water  plants  when  looking  up  from  below,  and  so  is  a  pro- 
tection from  foes  in  the  water. 

12  and  13.  Notice  the  horny  tongue,  and  by  inserting  the 
finger  where  teeth  are  found  and  which  way  they  point. 
What  are  such  teeth  for  ? 

15.  The  scales  of  the  perch  have  comblike  edges. 

19.  The  spiny  fins  aid  the  perch  by  preventing  in  some 
measure  its  being  swallowed  by  other  fish. 

24.  The  mother  lays  a  great  many  eggs  at  the  bottom  of 
the  water  and  leaves  them  to  whatever  chance  may  hap- 
pen. 

28.  Perch  are  useful  as  food. 

The  Turtle  (No.  31). 

Choose  some  common  native  kind.  If  possible,  have 
some  live  specimens  before  the  school  for  some  time  before 
the  lessons.  A  shell,  also  some  eggs  preserved  in  alcohol, 
will  aid. 

1.  The  turtle  lives  partly  in  water  and  partly  on  land. 

11.  Its  lips  are  a  horny  beak  to  seize  its  food  with. 

14.  Its  blood  is  cold. 

15.  Its  covering,  large  scales. 

16.  Its  skeleton  is  inside,  bony,  and  jointed.    This  point 
is  aimed  mainly  to  correct  the  frequent  idea  that  a  turtle's 
shell  is  its  skeleton  ;  but  the  large  scales  overlie  the  broad 
flattened  ribs,  which  are  truly  internal.     The  way  the  head, 
tail,  and  legs  can  be  drawn  in  is  proof  enough  of  joints. 

19.  The  defense  of  the  turtle  is  his  hard  shell.    Why 
does  he  not  run  away  ? 

20.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  holes  dug  in  the  sand  at  night, 
and  with  extreme  caution  for  fear  of  discovery. 

9 


98  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

24.  The  eggs  are  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  the 
young  are  active  as  soon  as  hatched. 

25.  Turtles  retreat  at  the  approach  of  cold  weather  to  the 
bottoms  of  ponds,  etc.,  where,  buried  in  mud,  they  hibernate. 
The  young  are  said  to  always  take  a  u  bee  line  "  for  the 
nearest  water  (even  when  invisible)  on  hatching  from  their 
nest  in  the  sand. 

28.  Both  eggs  and  flesh  are  eaten. 

The  Mole  (No.  50). 

This  animal  is  said  by  some  to  burrow  in  the  soft  earth 
under  leaves,  etc.,  all  winter  long.  In  any  case  he  begins 
operations  very  early.  Get  good  pictures,  and  then  draw 
out  what  the  class  may  have  observed. 

1.  The  mole  lives  in  the  ground. 

2.  The  sense  of  touch  in  its  nose  is  very  delicate.     Why  ? 
4.  The  eyes  are  sunk  in  the  fur  and  skin  and  are  almost 

useless.    Why  ? 

7.  It  burrows  in  the  ground. 

8.  Note  the  powerful  front  feet  and  legs  to  force  its  pas- 
sage with. 

10.  Its  food  consists  of  worms,  grubs,  and  insects ;  also 
seeds  found  in  the  earth. 

22.  It  makes  quite  complicated  galleries  and  chambers  in 
the  earth  not  only  for  food,  but  for  its  home :  also  the  ridges 
so  troublesome  in  lawns. 

27.  It  serves  by  destroying  grubs  and  injurious  insects. 

The  Worm  (No.  4)* 

1.  The  worm  lives  in  the  earth  and  feeds  on  the  surface 
at  night. 

2.  It  selects  its  food  by  feeling. 
4.  Has  no  eyes. 

7.  Crawls  along  the  surface  or  burrows  in  the  earth. 

*  See  the  first  128  pages  of  Darwin's  Vegetable  Mold. 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.   99 

8.  Its  under  side  is  armed  with  backward  pointed  bristles 
by  means  of  which  it  moves. 

9.  Its  body  is  made  up  of  many  similar  rings. 

10.  Its  food  is  the  decaying  matter  in  the  earth  it  swal- 
lows or  which  it  may  find  in  the  ground. 

14.  Its  blood  is  white. 

22.  It  makes  burrows  in  the  earth  and  piles  of  "  castings  " 
on  the  surface.  It  would  much  interest  even  small  children 
to  collect  the  castings  each  day  from  a  square  yard  or  rod  of 
ground  and  after  a  month  or  season  estimate  the  amount 
brought  to  the  surface  by  these  interesting  animals. 

24.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  earth. 

27.  They  serve,  by  preparing  soft  holes  for  the  roots  of 
plants  to  follow  and  by  bringing  fresh  earth  to  the  surface. 

The  Mallard  Duck  (No.  84). 

Find  a  good  picture  of  this,  and  procure  some  down ;  also 
the  heads  and  feet  of  some  common  ducks  for  the  class  to 
examine.  A  live  duck  in  a  coop  will  aid,  if  one  can  be  had 
for  a  few  days  during  the  lessons. 

4.  The  eyes  are  simple. 

8.  Has  4  toes.  Is  the  hind  one  on  the  same  level  as  the 
rest  ?  Three  toes  have  webs  between  them.  How  many  toes 
turn  forward  ? 

13.  Its  jaws  move  up  and  down,  and  its  bill  has  plates 
along  the  edges  which  form  a  strainer  to  hold  the  little 
water  animals  on  which  it  feeds. 

15.  Its  covering  is  of  feathers,  which  on  the  breast  be- 
come very  thick  and  fine,  to  protect  the  duck  from  the  chill 
of  the  cold  water  it  is  on  so  much.     The  plumage  varies 
with  the  season  of  the  year,  being  thicker  in  winter.     At  the 
roots  of  the  tail  are  the  two  oil  glands  from  which  the  duck 
presses  oil  with  her  bill,  and  thus  dresses  her  feathers  to 
keep  the  water  from  wetting  them. 

16.  Note  the  color  of  the  bill,  feet,  and  eggs.    Which  is 
the  brightest  colored,  the  duck  or  the  drake  ? 

18.  Of  what  use  is  the  duck's  tame  color  to  her  ? 


100  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Once,  when  a  boy,  I  was  chasing  a  horse  in  a  closely 
cropped  pasture.  The  grass  was  so  short  that  it  was  no  pro- 
tection to  anything  which  desired  to  hide,  but  as  I  was  run- 
ning along  I  almost  stepped  upon  a  duck  on  her  nest.  She 
at  once  flew  a  few  feet  away  and  then  began  to  flutter  and 
struggle  on  the  ground  as  though  unable  to  fly,  evidently 
hoping  to  attract  my  attention  from  her  nest.  This  was  on 
a  low  ant-hill,  and  held  17  newly  hatched  ducklings.  For 
several  weeks  that  large  bird  must  have  set  in  that  exposed 
place,  people  and  animals  frequently  passing  near,  without 
being  discovered.  Was  green  a  favorable  color  for  the  eggs 
while  she  was  laying  ? 

20.  Ducks  quack. 

22.  They  nest  011  the  ground. 

24.  They  lay  hard-shelled  eggs,  on  which  the  mother  sets. 
How  long  ? 

The  young  are  called  ducklings.  Little  ducks  are  able 
to  run  about,  swim,  and  feed  almost  as  soon  as  hatched. 

25.  This  hiding  by  exposure  I  have  frequently  observed 
in  ducks,   they  instinctively  trusting  to  harmonious  sur- 
roundings and  a  certain  freedom  from  search  which  an  im- 
probable location  gives.     In  this  connection  call  attention 
to  the  care  with  which  a  laying  duck  must  mark  the  sur- 
roundings of  her  nest  to  be  able  to  find  it  again,  especially 
in  the  dusk  of  evening  or  early  morning.     As  illustrating 
this  point,  I  remember  blundering  011  a  teal's  nest  in  a 
swampy  place  where  the  thousands  of  grassy  tussocks  looked 
as  much  alike  as  haycocks.     The  duck  was  away,  and  her 
greenish  eggs  were  beautifully  covered  with  a  coverlet  of 
down  she  had  drawn  over  from  the  sides.     Only  the  merest 
accident  could  discover  such  a  nest,  and  how  the  duck  ever 
found  it  in  the  night  I  can  not  imagine. 

Young  ducks  instinctively  make  for  the  water.  This 
is  especially  remarkable  when  they  have  been  hatched  by  a 
hen,  who  does  everything  she  can  to  dissuade  them  from  it. 

Perhaps  some  of  the  pupils  may  be  able  to  set  some 
duck's  eggs  under  a  hen,  and  then  let  the  class  see  this. 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.   1Q1 

27.  Ducks  are  supposed  to  carry  snails,  water  animals, 
and  seeds  in  the  mud  on  their  feet  from  ODe;p'ace\  to  anot,!!^ ! 
especially  to  islands.  '*.•        '•"  * 

28.  They  give  down*  and  feathers,  eg$s,*a,u&  fib3h\  *  *>  *  >  * 

»••..*••.  ;..i  r  :». '':*:,»  '•?  ; 
The  Redheaded  Woodpecker  (No.  41). 
.  Procure,  if  possible,  a  section  of  some  small  tree  with  a 
nest  in  it.     Also  some  eggs,  a  skin,  and  a  skull,  showing  the 
tongue  and  curious  bones  which  move  it.     Illustrations  are 
plenty  and  can  be  used  in  addition. 

3.  How  does  he  know  where  to  drill  for  a  grub  ?  Those 
who  have  slept  in  a  log  cabin  in  the  pineries  and  heard  the 
noise  the  borers  in  the  logs  make,  will  have  but  little  ques- 
tion that  he  hears  them  at  work.  Instinct  teaches  where 
to  listen — in  dead  wood— and  then,  aided  doubtless  by  the 
bones  of  the  bill  and  head  (as  a  watch  placed  between  the 
teeth  sounds  louder),  the  rasping  of  the  borer  is  heard. 

7.  He  climbs  the  trunks  of  trees. 

8.  Note  the  sharp  claws  to  cling  to  the  bark ;  the  toes  (2 
in  front  and  2  behind)  and  the  stiff  tail  feathers  to  brace 
back  on  while  at  work. 

10.  His  food  consists  of  boring  grubs  and  some  other  in- 
sects; also  fruits,  such  as  apples  and  cherries. 

12.  His  tongue  is  extensile  and  barbed.  When  thrust 
into  the  hole  after  the  grub  it  serves  to  draw  it  out  into  the 
bill.  The  bones  by  which  this  is  accomplished  are  fastened 
above  at  the  base  of  the  bill  and  are  remarkable  in  their 
operation.  At  the  same  time  note  the  strong,  chisel -shaped 
bill. 

18.  Note  the  brilliant  and  similar  coloring  of  both  male 
and  female.  The  use  is  doubtless  to  attract  each  other. 
How  does  the  mother  hide  while  setting  ?  See  how  the 
woodpecker  got  his  red  head  in  Hiawatha's  fight  with 
"Pearl  Feather." 

20.  Woodpeckers  have  a  cry  which  they  often  use,  and 
also  seem  to  amuse  themselves  by  "  drumming "  on  some 
dry  and  resonant  limb. 


102  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

21.  They  seem  social  in  their  play  and  chattering. 
*;:  /92.  They1  mike,  Holes  in  the  dead  wood  of  trees  and  in 
buildings.  "•    •  • ' 

:  :  *2'3::  Mates  takfc  tprnsln  working  at  the  hole  for  the  nest, 
•  •  and  ite' cliips  are  carefully  carried  away  and  dropped  at  a 
distance,  lest  the  nest  be  discovered. 

27.  They  serve  by  destroying  injurious  insects  and  has- 
tening the  decay  of  dead  wood. 

The  Sheep  (No.  58). 

Provide  some  wool  from  a  sheep,  and  woolen  cloth.  Also 
some  leather  (ordinary  "  chamois  "  skin)  and  a  horn. 

5.  Note  the  hairy  nose. 

6.  Taste  has  much  to  do  in  guiding  a  sheep  regarding 
proper  food. 

7.  It  walks  on  its  toes,  and  has  a  divided  hoof. 

10.  Eats  vegetable  food,  and  chews  its  cud.  Is  very  fond 
of  salt . 

12.  The  lamb  uses  its  tongue  to  suckle. 

15.  Its  covering  is  called  wool.     Its  horns  are  not  round, 
but  angular. 

16.  The  skeleton  is  inside,  bony,  and  jointed. 

20.  Sheep  bleat. 

21.  They  are  social  in  feeding. 

24.  The  young  are  called  lambs,  and  resemble  the  parent 
in  form. 

26.  In  character  the  sheep  is  the  type  of  patience,  meek- 
ness, and  gentleness.  In  a  long  acquaintance  with  them,  I 
never  heard  one  make  a  sound  of  complaint,  even  when 
worried  by  dogs,  roughly  handled  in  the  washing,  or  hurt 
severely  in  the  paring  away  of  the  hoofs  affected  with 
<l  foot  rot,"  the  treatment  for  a  scab,"  or  when  cut  by  the 
shearers. 

Although  on  rare  occasions  some  old  buck  will  make  the 
attack,  I  have  never  seen  anything  like  aggression  and 
their  resistance  to  wrong  consists  almost  wholly  in  atti- 
tude— a  facing  of  the  danger  till  its  approach  causes  flight. 


STEP   IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.  103 

"  Gentle  as  a  lamb  "  is  as  expressive  as  it  is  possible  to  make 
words.* 

Another  trait  worthy  of  notice  is  the  way  they  follow 
companions.  What  one  does,  the  rest  do — be  it  stand  and 
look,  run,  jump  over  an  obstacle,  etc.  It  is  said  that  if  sheep 
are  going  through  a  gate  and  the  first  ones  are  made  to 
jump  over  some  bar,  the  rest  will  take  the  same  jump,  even 
though  the  bar  be  removed !  On  the  contrary,  once  without 
a  leader,  they  do  not  seem  to  know  which  way  to  turn,  and 
are  easily  lost. 

27.  Sheep  aid  in  scattering  the  seeds  of  many  plants. 

28.  They  give  wool,  skins,  leather,  mutton,  and  tallow. 
In  eastern  countries  the  skins  are  made  into  water  bags  or 
wine  "bottles." 

The  Carrier  Dove  t  (No.  38). 

This  bird  is  exceedingly  interesting  in  many  ways,  and  a 
valuable  one  to  study  not  only  for  its  own  sake  but  more 
for  the  symbolism  connected  with  it.  Have  some  live  ones 
in  the  class,  and  if  some  of  the  boys  will  arrange  a  trap  to 
catch  them  at  their  roost,  messages  can  be  tied  under  the 
wing  or  around  the  bare  part  of  the  leg  and  carried  home 
by  the  bird.  Some  eggs  should  also  be  obtained. 

7.  The  dove  flies  very  swiftly,  often  traveling  more  than 
a  mile  a  minute. 

8.  The  dove  has  two  wings  and  a  broad  tail  to  guide  it 
in  flight  and  check  its  descent  in   alighting.      Its  tail  is 
rounded  on  the  end. 

11.  Doves  drink  with  a  steady  drawing  in,  like  a  horse. 
13.  The  food  is  swallowed  whole. 
17.  Note  the  color  of  legs,  bill,  eyes,  and  eggs. 
20.  Doves  coo.     They  also  strike  the  wings  in  flight  and 
make  a  fluttering  noise. 

*  See  Psalm  xxiii,  Isaiah  liii,  and  John  x. 

t  The  words  u  dove  "  and  "  pigeon  "  are  not  quite  synonymous,  but  be- 
cause "dove"  is  so  commonly  used  in  literature  and  so  nearly  correct,  I 
would  always  use  it  with  the  children. 


104:  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

24.  They  lay  only  two  eggs  at  a  time,  and  those  on  dif- 
ferent days.    The  young  are  called  squabs,  and  are  hatched 
in  a  very  helpless  condition  and  tenderly  fed  with  moistened 
food  from  the  crops  of  the  parent.    The  different  breeds  of 
doves  show  in  a  marked  way  how  parents  can  transmit 
physical  characters  to  their  young.     "  Pouters,'*  u  fantails," 
u  tumblers "  and  "  carriers  "  each  have  the  distinguishing 
features  which  the  squabs  inherit. 

25.  The  u  homing "  instinct  in  the  dove  is  very  inter- 
esting. 

26.  The  dove  is  constantly  referred  to  in  literature  as 
"gentle"  and  u  tender."    These  traits  quickly  become  ap- 
parent when  these  birds  are  observed  in  their  habits.     They 
mate  for  life,  and  are  constant  to  each  other.    The  mate 
feeds  the  mother  while  hatching,  and  even  assists  in  that 
duty,  while  both  unite  in  feeding  the  young  with  softened 
food  from  their  own  crops.* 

27.  Doves,  by  their  habits  of  flying  long  distances  for 
food,  carrying  it  home  in  their  crops  and  afterwards  feeding 
their  young,  are  great  distributors  of  seeds,  especially  to 
islands. 

The  "  carriers  "  also  serve  to  carry  messages.  To  do  this 
they  must  have  been  recently  carried  from  their  home  to  the 
place  whence  the  message  is  to  go.  This  is  written  on  thin 
paper  and  wrapped  around  the  leg  and  tied,  or  placed  in  a 
quill  or  tube  and  tied  under  the  wing.  On  reaching  their 
cote  the  message  should  be  soon  removed,  or  the  bird  may 
destroy  it  with  its  bill. 

A  Plant  Beetle  (No.  14). 

These  beetles  will  be  easily  found  by  examining  young 
potato  plants.  Gather  enough  potato  beetles  for  the  class, 
and  pick  off  some  leaves  with  the  orange-colored  eggs  fast- 
ened on  the  under  side.  Let  the  class  now  notice  or  find 
out  that — 

*  See  Romanes's  Animal  Intelligence,  p.  271. 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.  1Q5 

8.  They  have  six  legs,  and  shell-like  wing  covers.  The 
under  pair  of  wings  are  membranous,  and  the  end  curiously 
folded  forward. 

10.  They  live  on  vegetable  food. 

17.  Note  the  colors  of  the  wing  covers,  wings,  and  eggs. 

22.  They  make  holes  in  leaves. 

24.  The  young  are  hatched  from  cylindrical  eggs,  which 
the  mother  beetle  knows  enough  to  lay  on  the  food  plant, 
and  which  are  called  grubs.    After  these  have  eaten  all  they 
need,  they  burrow  a  little  way  into  the  earth  and  turn  into 
a  resting  stage  called  a  pupa. 

25.  They   feign   death    when   disturbed,   falling  to  the 
ground  and  lying  still  for  some  time. 

The  Owl  (No.  40). 

If  possible  have  a  live  one,  or  a  skin.  Add  to  this  good 
pictures.  Lead  the  class  to  notice — 

3.  Its  hearing  is  keen,  and  greatly  aids  it  in  finding  its  prey. 

4.  Owls  can  see  in  the  dark.     What  about  the  eye  aids 
in  this  ?    The  eyes  are  in  the  front  of  the  head,  and  directed 
well  forward. 

7.  The  flight  is  noiseless. 

8.  The  claws  are  hooked  and  sharp. 

10.  Its  food  consists  of  small  animals  and  birds,  such  as 
mice,  rats,  etc.,  which  it  catches. 

11.  Its  bill  is  hooked  and  strong. 

15.  Its  covering  is  of  feathers,  which  are  very  soft,  and 
render  its  noiseless  flight  possible. 

19.  It  defends  itself  with  claws  and  beak. 

20.  Owls  hoot. 

21.  Like  all  predatory  animals,  it  is  solitary  in  its  habits. 

22.  Makes  a  nest  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree  or  bank. 

24.  The  white  eggs  are  set  on  by  the  mother,  and  the 
young  are  called  owlets. 

27.  It  is  of  great  service  to  man  by  destroying  injurious 
animals,  and  should  never  be  killed  in  sport  nor  its  eggs  de- 
stroyed. 


106  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

The  Mosquito  (No.  18). 

Whenever  the  weather  becomes  warm  and  these  pests 
appear,  look  on  the  tops  of  exposed  rain-water  tubs  or  still 
pools  for  the  curious  egg  boats  the  mosquito  lays,  which  look 
like  flakes  of  soot  floating  on  the  water.  If  possible,  by  chance 
finds  and  by  exposing  pans  of  water  (tell  the  pupils  how  to 
do  it),  have  enough  eggs  so  that  each  child  can  have  a  bunch 
in  a  clean  bottle  of  rain  water.  Cork  or  cover  the  bottles 
to  keep  the  mosquitoes  from  escaping,  and,  having  labeled 
each  one,  set  them  about  the  room  to  await  developments. 
Meanwhile  go  on  with  some  other  piece  of  work.  Have 
two  or  three  perfectly  sweet  bottles  filled  with  the  same  rain 
water  at  the  same  time,  but  cover  without  any  eggs  in  the 
water.  After  the  eggs  have  hatched  and  gone  through  their 
changes,  take  up  the  study  and  dwell  upon  these  points: 

1.  The  young  live  in  fresh  (not  salt)  water. 

5.  Mosquitoes  can  smell  well.  My  own  experience  in 
the  matter  is  this :  One  hot  night  in  summer  a  trapdoor  on 
the  top  of  a  high  roof  was  opened  to  let  out  the  warm  air  in 
the  house.  This  air  to  one  in  the  draught  of  such  an  opening 
has  a  decided  odor  and,  ere  we  were  aware  of  it  mosquitoes 
came  pouring  down  into  the  chambers. 

10.  Mosquitoes  live  on  the  blood  of  animals.  The  young 
devour  decaying  matters  in  the  water. 

12.  This  is  obtained  by  aid  of  a  sharp  piercing  beak, 
which  they  thrust  into  the  animal  and  draw  out  the  blood. 

14.  The  young  breathe  air  while  in  the  water  by  means 
of  curious  tubelike  organs.  The  larva  (first  stage  from  the 
egg)  has  this  on  the  end  of  the  body,  and  when  air  is  needed 
the  "  wiggler  "  comes  up,  and,  placing  the  opening  at  the  sur- 
face, takes  in  the  needed  supply. 

In  the  pupa  stage  these  breathing  tubes  are  in  the  back, 
and  the  little  animal  jerks  itself  to  where  the  tubes  can 
reach  the  surface  and  breathes  as  before. 

20.  Mosquitoes  hum  or  "sing." 

22.  The  mother  arranges  her  eggs  so  that  they  float  on  the 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.  1Q7 

water,  and  the  perfect  insect  makes  a  boat  of  its  cast-off  pupa 
skin,  on  which  to  rest  while  the  wings  expand  and  dry. 

24.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  masses  on  the  water,  and  the 
young  are  unlike  the  parent  and  go  through  a  complete 
metamorphosis,  in  which  both  larva  and  pupa  are  active. 

26.  The  perseverance  of  the    mosquito  has  been  over- 
looked.    The  way  it  disregards  all  rebuffs  and  ill-treatment, 
even  to  abusive  language,  is  worthy  of  remark  and  of  a  bet- 
ter cause.     Emphasize  this  trait  of  untiring  persistence,  for 
it  is  a  noble  quality  in  any  one. 

27.  After  the  time  that  has  elapsed  since  the  eggs  were 
put  to  hatch  in  the  bottles,  those  without  eggs  will  be  found 
more  or  less  offensive  in  smell,  and  the  others  with  larvae  in 
them  not  so.     The  reason  will  be  plain.     Mosquitoes  are  of 
inestimable  benefit  in  the  larval  state,  especially  in  swampy 
districts,  for  removing  decaying  substances  in  the  water  and 
so  preventing  disease. 

The  Horse  (No.  54). 

We  now  take  this  common  and  useful  type  of  the  one 
toed  animals.  Some  horsehair  cloth,  such  as  is  used  on  fur- 
niture, some  articles  (buttons,  rings,  knife-handles,  etc.)  of 
bone,  and  a  piece  of  leather,  will  do  to  duster  the  interest 
around.  Develop  these  points : 

1.  The  horse  is  a  land  animal. 

2.  He  can  select  his  food  in  the  dark  by  feeling  with 
his  lips. 

3.  His  ears  are  movable. 

4.  He  has  two  eyelids,  which  move  up  and  down.    The 
pupil  of  his  eye  is  an  up-and-down  oval  in  shape. 

5.  The  nose  is  bare  of  hair. 

6.  Taste  aids  in  deciding  whether  food  shall  be  eaten  or 
rejected. 

7.  A  horse  can  trot,  canter  (moderate),  and  gallop  (rapid 
and  violent  motion). 

8.  Has  single  toes,  covered  with  a  strong  hoof.    His  tail 
is  long,  and  used  to  brush  off  annoying  insects. 


108  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

10.  The  colt  sucks  milk. 

11.  The  lips  are  to  grasp  the  food. 

12.  The  fleshy  tongue  is  to  move  the  food  about  in  the 
mouth  and  keep  it  between  the  grinding  teeth. 

14.  Breathes  air  by  lungs.    The  horse  perspires  when 
heated. 

15.  His  hair  is  thicker  in  winter  and  he  sheds  it  in  the 
spring.     When  driven  hard  and  obliged  to  stand  he  needs 
blanketing. 

19.  Uses  his  heels  and  tail  in  defense,  although  some  bite. 

20.  His  voice  finds  expression  in  the  neigh  of  inquiry, 
the  whinny  for  young  or  food,  and  the  snort  of  fear. 

24.  The  young  is  called  a  colt.     Here  again  the  inherit- 
ance of  physical  qualities  is  seen  in  breeds  of  horses,  such  as 
the  swift  u  trotter,"  the  powerful  dray  horse,  or  the  tiny 
Shetland  pony. 

25.  Horses  have  a  very  remarkable  sense  of  direction. 
Anecdotes  of  this  can  be  found  in  books.     The  following 

I  will  add  from  my  own  experience : 

Caught  with  a  team  of  horses  in  a  terrific  storm  of  wind 
and  rain  one  day,  soon  after  sunset,  I  was  unable  to  see  my 
way  home  across  a  broad  meadow  in  which  were  deep  and 
dangerous  ditches. 

Unhitching  my  horses  from  the  wagon,  I  attempted  to 
drive  them  home,  but  after  some  minutes  of  hurried  travel 
in  a  direction  supposed  to  be  away  from  the  wagon,  I  was 
surprised  to  find  myself  back  near  it  again.  The  horses 
had  required  constant  efforts  on  my  part  to  keep  them 
"  straight "  (according  to  my  idea).  I  now  started  off  again 
and  let  them  go  without  guidance,  and  they  safely  took  me 
to  the  bridges  across  the  ditches  and  home,  although  there 
was  no  beaten  track  to  follow. 

Another  case  was  that  of  a  horse  purchased  by  my  father. 
A  river  with  no  bridge  or  ferry  lay  between  the  horse's  home 
and  my  father's  farm ;  hence  the  road  taken  was  around  by 
a  bridge.  After  months  of  service  as  a  work  horse,  Charlie 
(as  he  was  called)  broke  out  of  the  pasture  one  night  and 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.  109 

disappeared.  Search  led  to  his  recovery  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  his  former  home,  to  which  he  went  by  a  direct 
road — swimming  the  river— and  which  he  would  doubtless 
have  reached  had  he  not  been  caught  lunching  in  a  cornfield 
by  the  roadside. 

26.  The  horse  is  a  very  docile  animal. 

27.  Horses  serve  by  drawing  and  carrying  loads. 

28.  They  give  bone  for  various  articles,  hair  for  cloth, 
hides  for  leather,  and  in  some  countries  (France)  ihe  flesh  is 
eaten,  while  in  others  (Tartary)  the  milk  is  used  for  food. 

The  Mud  Wasp  (No.  24). 

This  shiny,  black,  solitary  insect  is  quite  common  in  most 
portions  of  the  country,  and  can  be  found  building  her  mud 
nests  in  outhouses,  barns,  etc.  Procure  at  least  one  wasp 
and  cells  enough  for  all  the  class.  Notice  these  points : 

9.  The  body  is  in  3  parts. 

15.  Has  a  horny,  jointed,  outside  skeleton. 

17.  Its  color  is  black. 

19.  It  defends  itself  with  its  sting. 

21.  The  mud  wasp  is  solitary  in  its  life  and  labors. 

22  and  24.  Having  constructed  its  cell  of  mud,  the  mother 
wasp  lays  one  egg  at  the  back,  and  then  proceeds  to  hunt  for 
spiders  to  fill  it,  so  that  the  young  may  have  food.  These 
spiders  it  is  wise  enough  to  sting  so  as  to  paralyze  but  not 
kill,  and  having  thus  stored  the  cell  with  food  which  will 
keep  fresh,  it  plasters  up  the  end  and  then  proceeds  to  build 
another.  In  opening  the  mud  cells  the  children  will  often 
find  other  things  than  young  wasps  and  paralyzed  spiders, 
for  other  insects  find  the  store  of  spiders  before  the  cell  is 
closed  and  lay  their  eggs  on  them. 

26.  The  wasp  shows  great  intelligence  in  the  construction 
of  its  nest  and  in  providing  food  for  its  young. 

The  Barn  Swallow  (No.  43). 

As  the  spring  days  grow  warmer  and  summer  approaches 
the  swallows  will  return  from  their  winter  wandering  in 


HO  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

the  south.  As  soon  as  they  have  come,  begin  to  have  the 
children  search  about  their  homes  for  signs  of  the  mud  nests 
under  the  eaves  or  in  the  barns,  and  when  all  have  had  a 
chance  to  see  the  birds  at  work,  begin  the  lessons.  Bank 
swallows  or  chimney  swifts  can  replace  the  barn  swallow, 
although  the  latter  is  my  choice.  The  points  to  be  devel- 
oped are : 

1.  The  swallow  is  almost  constantly  flying  in  the  air. 

7.  It  flies  swiftly  and  easily. 

8.  Has  long  wings  and  a  forked  tail. 

10.  Its  food  consists  entirely  of  insects  caught  as  it 
flies. 

13.  Its  mouth  extends  far  back  and  opens  very  wide. 
Why? 

19.  The  swallow's  only  means  of  defense  is  its  swiftness. 

20.  Swallows  "twitter"  and  in  this  talk  and  in  work 
are — 

21.  Social.     Which  gets  cold  the  quickest,  a  small  thing 
or  a  large  one  ?    Did  you  ever  try  to  button  gloves,  coat,  or 
clothes  when  the  fingers  were  cold  ?     How  does  cold  affect 
the  motions  of  animals  ?     (Stiffens.)     Why  can  we  safely 
handle  hives  of  bees  or  even  nests  of  hornets  on  a  cool  morn- 
ing?   I  have  seen  my  mother  sweep  the  flies  from  a  ceiling 
on  a  cool  morning  and  then  brush  them  up  in  a  dustpan. 
Why  did  they  not  fly  off  ?    In  the  fall  the  swallows  gather 
in  flocks  and  go  away  toward  the  south.     Who  can  tell  me 
one  reason  for  their  doing  so  ?  * 

The  varying  heights  at  which  they  can  be  seen  seeking 
food  are  doubtless  due  to  the  air  being  warmer  close  to  the 
ground  at  one  time,  and  that  warm  currents  are  blowing 
higher  up  at  another. 

*  When  we  consider  the  extreme  delicacy  of  the  small  insects  the  swal- 
lows feed  upon,  and  how  quickly  such  slender,  gauzy  things  must  stiffen 
with  the  cold,  and  be  obliged  to  retreat  to  the  shelter  of  the  grass  or 
trees  where  the  swallow  can  not  find  them,  the  wonder  is  that  these 
birds  can  find  food  as  early  and  late  in  day  and  year  as  they  do. 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.  Hi 

22.  Barn  swallows  build  nests  of  mud.  Where  ?  The 
mud  is  brought  in  its  bill  by  both  male  and  female  and 
placed  in  position  on  the  growing  nest,  each  layer  being 
allowed  time  to  harden  before  the  birds  add  another  or  trust 
their  weight  upon  it.  The  different  layers  are  stuck  to- 
gether with  the  gluey  saliva  of  the  birds.  Sheltered  under 
the  protecting  eaves  of  the  building  or  ledge  of  rock,  the 
rain  can  not  wash  them  down. 

25.  Swallows  exhibit  instinct  of  a  high  grade.     Their 
ability  to  traverse  wide  bodies  of  water  to  distant  winter 
homes  and  find  their  way  back  in  the  spring  is  wonderful. 
Their  selection  of  a  sheltered  place  to  build  their  frail  nest, 
their  skill  and  knowledge  in  the  use  of  clay  for  building,  the 
character  of  the  nest  itself,  with  air-tight  sides  the  better 
to  protect  their  sensitive  young,  and  the  adaptability  they 
display  in  changed  surroundings,  are  no  less  remarkable. 

26.  The  swallow  is  confiding  in  her  character,  as  shown 
by  the  way  she  trusts  mankind ;  and  sympathetic,  as  shown 
in  the  way  a  whole  colony  will  aid  one  of  their  kind  in  dis- 
tress.* 

27.  Swallows  destroy  hosts  of  injurious  insects,  and  by 
their  graceful  flight  and  brisk  twitterings  are  very  compan- 
ionable. 

The  Mosquito-hawk  (Libellula  or  Dragon-fly}  (No.  10)^ 

These  powerful  insects,  living  as  they  do  on  prey  caught 
in  the  air,  can  exist  only  while  food  is  found;  hence  should 
be  studied  during  warm  weather.  For  some  reasons  late 
spring  is  the  most  advantageous,  as  they  are  now  hatching 
from  the  pupa  state. 

Gather  a  number  of  the  larval  forms  from  the  water 
with  a  net,  as  suggested  for  crayfish,  and  keep  them  in  an 

*  Psalms  Ixxxiv,  3 ;  Longfellow's  "  The  Emperor's  Bird's  Nest " ;  .Ro- 
manes's Animal  Intelligence,  pp.  295-318. 

t  See  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  ii,  pp.  147-149,  and  Tennyson's 
Two  Voices,  stanzas  3  to  5. 


112  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

aquarium  for  the  children  to  watch  while  feeding  and  mak- 
ing their  last  molt. 

1.  This  insect  lives  in  the  air  most  of  the  time. 

4.  Has  very  large,  compound  eyes. 

7.  Flies  by  day. 

8.  Has  4  powerful  wings. 

10.  Its  food  consists  of  live  insects  caught  on  the  wing, 
of  which  it  eats  large  numbers. 

14.  The  young  has  its  breathing  apparatus  in  the  tail, 
and  breathes  air  in  water. 

15.  Its  covering  is  horny  and  jointed,  which  constitutes— 

16.  An  outside,  jointed  skeleton. 

17.  Note  the  iridescent  colors  and  the  delicate  cross  lines 
between  the  divisions  of  the  compound  eye. 

21.  The  mosquito  hawk  is  solitary  in  its  habits.      Why  ? 

The  Cabbage  Butterfly  (No.  22). 

By  the  last  of  May  the  cabbage  and  cauliflower  leaves 
will  be  all  too  apt  to  show  signs  of  having  been  eaten,  and, 
if  examined,  the  green  caterpillars  of  this  butterfly  will  be 
discovered,  much  resembling  the  ribs  of  the  leaf  in  color 
and  form.  These  bear  confinement  well.  Have  the  pupils 
search  for  them,  and  each  keep  a  couple  in  some  fruit  jar 
or  large  bottle  or  can  which  can  be  covered  with  netting. 
As  the  leaves  become  dry  or  are  eaten  up,  fresh  ones  should 
be  supplied,  till  the  caterpillars  are  full  grown  and  form 
their  pupae.  Show  the  class  how  to  make  nets  and  catch 
some  of  the  butterflies  to  examine.  Lead  them  to  notice 
these  points: 

7.  The  butterfly  flies  by  day. 

8.  Its  wings  are  covered  with  beautiful  scales,  so  small 
as  to  seem  like  powder  or  dust.     (Show  some  under  a  lens, 
or  else  by  pictures.)    Its  antennae  are  clubbed  at  the  end. 

The  caterpillar  has  16  legs. 

10.  Its  food,  when  young,  is  the  leaves  of  plants.  (What 
plants  ?) 

The  butterfly  feeds  on  the  sweet  nectar  of  flowers. 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.  H3 

12.  Its  mouth  parts,  by  which  it  draws  in  this  nectar,  are 
together  called  a  u  tongue"  which  is  coiled  when  not  in  use. 

15.  The  caterpillar  has  to  change  his  covering  of  skin 
several  times  before  fully  grown.  Why  ? 

17.  Note  the  color  of  the  caterpillar  and  the  wings  of  the 
butterfly.    Are  the  wings  the  same  color  below  as  above  ? 
Which  is  most  brilliant  ?    Which  most  "  neutral "  and  sub- 
dued ? 

18.  Why  is  the  cabbage  caterpillar  green  ?    Why  long 
and  cylindrical  ?    In  what  position  does  a  butterfly  hold  its 
wings  when  at  rest  ?     Where  do  they  alight  to  rest  at  night 
or  when  not  feeding  ?    Why  are  the  under  side  of  the  wings 
marked  with  dark  lines  and  dusted  with  black  ?    Does  the 
folding  of  the  wings  when  at  rest  seem  to  be  of  any  use  to 
the  butterfly  ? 

20.  Butterflies  can  only  Buffer. 

22.  Caterpillars  make  holes  in  leaves. 

24.  The  eggs  are  laid  singly  on  the  food  plant.  The  eggs 
hatch  into  caterpillars,  which  when  full  grown  become 
pupce — a  resting  stage,  from  which  at  last  emerge  the 
perfect  butterfly,  which  is  very  unlike  the  caterpillar. 

27.  Butterflies  are  helpful  to  the  flowers.  As  they  go 
from  one  flower  to  another,  they  carry  the  pollen,  and  so 
aid  in  producing  vigorous  seed. 

The  Humming  Bird— Ruby  Throat  (No.  42). 

These  dainty  creatures  will  by  this  time  in  the  year  have 
been  seen  flashing  about  among  the  flowers. 

A  skin,  nest,  and  eggs  will  greatly  aid  in  the  lessons. 
To  these  add  pictures,  colored  if  possible.  Note  the  follow- 
ing points: 

7.  It  flies  very  swiftly. 

10.  Feeds  on  small  insects  and  the  nectar  of  flowers. 

11.  It  has  a  long  bill. 

15.  Is  covered  with  feat hers. 

17.  Note  the  colors,  and  how  changeable  they  are.    Do 
they  harmonize  with  its  usual  surroundings  (flowers)  ? 
10 


SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

20.  Humming  birds  are  so  called  because  of  the  whirring 
noise  their  wings  make.  They  also  u  twitter." 

22.  They  nest  on  the  limbs  of  trees. 

25.  The  nest  is  cunningly  placed  so  as  to  resemble  a  knot, 
and  covered  with  lichens,  or  whatever  may  make  it  blend 
with  its  surroundings. 

28.  Beautiful  jewelry  and  ornaments  are  made  with 
their  exquisite  feathers. 

The  Fire  Beetle  (No.  16). 

These  insects  may  not  appear  in  time  for  these  lessons, 
being  really  summer  insects.  Have  some  pinned,  also  live 
specimens.  The  points  to  notice  are : 

7.  They  fly  at  night.     A  popular  name  is  "  lightning 
bug,"  and  in  poetry  the  most  frequent  designation  is  "  fire- 
fly." 

18.  The  "light "  is  to  attract  others  of  its  kind. 

24.  The  young  are  called  grubs,  and  live  among  the  roots 
of  grass  and  in  decaying  leaves  and  wood,  feeding  on  other 
larvae,  and  on  earthworms.  One  caught  by  me  had  (in  the 
dark)  spots  of  beautiful  greenish  light  along  the  sides,  which 
continued  to  show  through  all  one  winter. 

28.  Fire  beetles  give  light.  (See  Barefoot  Boy,  by  Whit- 
tier.) 

The  Squash  Bug  (No.  13). 

This  bug  is  large  enough  to  show  the  parts  easily,  and 
can  be  found  almost  everywhere,  both  adult  and  young. 

As  soon  as  the  squash  vines  have  begun  to  run,  get  the 
children  to  take  bottles  or  cans  and  search  for  the  bugs  near 
the  roots  of  the  vines,  and  for  the  young  on  the  under  side 
of  leaves  that  have  a  brownish  or  withered  look. 

Place  the  young  on  an  u  island "  in  some  big  bowl  so 
that  they  can  not  escape,  and  keep  the  bugs  in  screen- 
covered  jars. 

8.  They  have  4  wings,  the  two  upper  thin  at  the  ends 
and  crossed  on  the  back.    The  under  wings  are  more  gauzy. 


STEP  IX.— FURTHER  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  ANIMALS.  H5 

10.  They  do  great  damage  all  their  lives  by  sucking  out 
the  juices  of  the  squash  vines. 

12.  The  mouth  parts  form  a  piercing  beak,  which  the 
bug  plunges  into  the  leaf  or  stem  to  draw  out  the  sap  on 
which  it  lives.  When  not  in  use,  this  long  beak  is  folded 
back  on  the  breast,  where  it  can  easily  be  seen. 

19.  When  handled  or  crushed  these  bugs  emit  a  disgust- 
ing and  powerful  odor.    Of  what  use  is  it  to  the  bug  ? 

25.  When  alarmed,  these  bugs  fall  to  the  ground  and 
feign  dead  till  they  imagine  the  danger  is  past. 

The  Canary  Bird  (No.  45). 

This  type  of  the  stout-billed,  seed-eating  singers  can  be 
studied  at  any  time  when  the  mother  has  eggs.  Have  a  pair 
in  a  large  breeding  cage  for  the  children  to  observe.  Lead 
them  to  note  the  following  points: 

4.  The  canary  has  3  eyelids.  Which  way  does  each 
move  ? 

8.  It  has /our  toes.    Are  they  on  the  same  level,  and  does 
the  hind  toe  spring  from  the  same  portion  of  the  tarsus  as 
the  front  ones  ?    Notice  the  u  two  undivided  plates  meeting 
in  a  sharp  ridge  behind  "  which  form  the  back  side  of  the 
tarsus  (leg).     How  is  the  front  side  covered  ? 

Which  toe  is  the  longest  ?  * 

Which  toe  has  the  longest  claw  ?  Is  the  tarsus  feath- 
ered ? 

9.  A  canary  has  a  "  before  and  a  behind  "  to  its  body. 

10.  It  lives  on  seeds. 

15.  At  regular  times  it  molts — that  is,  new  feathers  be- 
gin to  grow,  like  the  "  pin-feathers  "  of  a  hen,  and  when  the 
new  dress  is  grown  enough  the  old  feathers  drop  out  one 
by  one. 

17.  Note  the  colors  of  the  feathers. 

20.  Canaries  are  singing  birds. 

*  A  bird's  toes  are  numbered  1,  2,  3,  4,  beginning  with  the  hind  toe 
and  ending  with  the  outer. 


116  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

24.  The  eggs  laid  by  the  mother  are  oval  in  shape,  and 
she  sits  on  them.  The  young,  called  birdlings,  are  very 
weak,  helpless,  and  dependent  on  the  care  of  the  parents. 

27.  Canaries  serve  us  by  singing. 

Review. — None  is  needed. 

Material  put  away,  as  before  suggested,  being  careful 
to  sprinkle  all  feathers,  skins,  etc.,  with  plenty  of  tobacco, 
which  for  twelve  years  has  kept  my  collections  entirely  free 
from  moths  and  other  vermin.  If  the  material  for  each 
step  is  kept  together  much  time  will  be  saved  in  future 
work. 

Conclusions. — Twenty- three  animals  have  been  observed 
in  a  suggestive  way. 

In  telling  what  they  knew  about  these,  the  children  have 
had  most  excellent  practice  in  the  art  of  description  and 
expression,  and  the  exact  meanings  of  many  new  words 
have  been  brought  to  their  notice.  This  comparison  of  ideas 
has  stimulated  them  to  closer  and  more  intelligent  observa- 
tion. 

From  such  work  we  can  with  confidence  expect — 

1.  More  free  and  exact  expression. 

2.  More  intelligent  observation. 

3.  Clearer  reasoning. 

4.  More  kindly  and  considerate  treatment  of  animals. 

5.  An  increased  and  loving  interest  in  Nature,  of  price- 
less value  to  young  or  old,  and  a  long  step  toward  the  ex- 
clusion of  evil  by  pre-occupation. 

In  Step  XI  we  shall  continue  this  helpful  work. 


STEP  X.— PLANTS. 

LEAVES. 

Object. — Step  I  brought  seeds  and  fruits  in  their  variety 
to  the  notice  of  the  pupil,  Step  IV  brought  the  variations  of 
the  bud  before  his  eyes,  and  Step  VI  introduced  him  to 
the  roots  and  stems.  It  is  now  desirable  to  have  him  ob- 
serve the  wonderful  variety  which  the  leaf  displays,  and 
thus  gain — 

1.  Increased  acquaintance  with  plants. 

2.  Exercise  in  touch,  taste,  and  smell. 

3.  Practice  in  form  and  color. 

Time. — Late  spring  or  early  summer  is  best,  as  the  leaves 
are  then  perfect  and  have  a  reasonable  degree  of  firmness 
and  maturity.  About  fifteen  lessons  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  each  will  suffice,  if  the  teacher  is  ready  and  the 
work  steadily  pushed  to  completion.  Taken  up  in  the  clos- 
ing days  of  school,  it  will  serve  to  lighten  the  drudgery  of 
the  warm  weather,  and  the  collections  will  be  very  pretty  to 
exhibit  at  the  closing  exercises.  Moreover,  interest  awak- 
ened in  the  subject  can  be  easily  carried  over  to  the  recrea- 
tions of  the  summer. 

Material. — Can  be  dry  or  fresh.  There  are  objections  to 
both,  as  the  dry  are  brittle  and  the  fresh  curl.  The  best 
way  is  to  have  both,  using  fresh  leaves  as  far  as  they  can 
be  obtained,  and  having  a  dry  stock  of  the  rarer  leaves  to 
supplement  with. 

The  following  list  of  points  or  ideas  regarding  leaves  is 
only  given  to  put  the  teacher  in  possession  of  the  key  to  the 
plan  of  work,  but  is  in  no  case  (except  perhaps  a  normal 
class,  and  better  not  there)  to  be  taught.  It  is  only  to  show 
when  the  work  desirable  at  this  stage  is  complete. 

(117) 


118  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

In  speaking  of  plants,  I  have  used  the  common  (English) 
names  as  given  in  Wood's  Botanist  and  Florist. 

Points  to  illustrate  and  Material  to  choose  from. 

Color. — Achyranthes,  nasturtium,  coleus,  maple. 

Shape. — Needles  :  of  pine,  fir,  asparagus,  cactus. 

Linelike:  Grass,  sedge. 

Lancelike :  Snapdragon,  lemon  verbena,  sweet  William. 

Egg-shaped:  Lilac,  apple. 

Oval :  Leaflets  of  rose,  strawberry,  and  red  clover. 

One-sided:  Bass  wood,  begonia,  elm. 

Fleshy:  Purslane,  stonecrop. 

Veins. — Parallel :  Grass,  carrion  flower,  lily,  tradescantia. 

Netted :  Maple,  apple,  basswood. 

Feather- veined :  Lilac,  apple,  coleus. 

Hand-veined :  Maple,  nasturtium,  geranium. 

Surface. — Smooth:  Nasturtium,  locust,  lilac,  lily. 

Hairy:  Strawberry,  geranium,  mullein. 

Parts.— (Blade,  petiole,  and  stipules):  Eose,  pansy,  pea. 

Tip. — Sharp:  Grass,  apple,  lilac. 

Eounded:  Nasturtium,  geranium,  moneywort. 

Notched :  Achyranthes,  tulip  tree,  leaflets  of  locust. 

Base. — Rounded:  Leaflets  of  rose  and  red  clover,  apple. 

Heart-shaped:  Morning-glory,  geranium. 

Arrow-shaped:  Bindweed,  smartweed. 

Perforated :  Honeysuckle,  bell  wort. 

Shield-shaped :  Nasturtium,  water  lily,  mandrake,  money- 
wort. 

Margin.— Smooth:  Lilac,  lily,  locust. 

Sawlike :  Rose,  apple,  strawberry,  elm. 

Lobed :  Maple,  rose  geranium,  oak. 

Compound. — Featherlike:  Rose,  hickory,  locust,  honey 
locust. 

Handlike :  Strawberry,  oxalis,  woodbine,  horse  chestnut, 
lupine. 

Petiole. — Long:  Many  leaves. 

Short :  Many  leaves. 


STEP  X.— PLANTS.  119 

None:  Grass,  petunia,  lily,  many  leaflets,  tradescantia. 

Flattened :  Aspen  and  poplar. 

Tendrils. — Green  brier,  pea. 

Stipules. — Leaflike:  Pansy,  pea. 

Tendrils :  Green  brier,  carrion  flower. 

Thorns:  Locust. 

Smell. — Pine:  Yarrow,  coleus,  geranium. 

With  the  aid  of  the  pupils  gather  enough  for  the  whole 
class  of  the  first  one  or  two  under  each  point.  As  each 
leaf  will  illustrate  several  points,  this  will  require  only  18 
kinds.  Take  a  strip  of  old  sheeting  or  other  thin  cloth, 
and  as  the  leaves  are  gathered,  roll  them  in  it,  and, 
when  finished,  place  the  roll  of  cloth  and  leaves  in  a  tin 
box  or  earthen  jar,  where  they  will  keep  fresh  and  smooth 
for  several  days.  Save  out  one  set  for  personal  prepara- 
tion. 

Preparation  of  Teacher.— Bead  the  chapter  on  leaves  in 
any  good  botany  and  compare  the  material  gathered  with  it. 
See  that  as  many  points  as  possible  are  covered,  and  sort 
your  leaves  according  to  each,  keeping  a  memorandum  of 
how  many  there  are  under  each  head. 

The  Lessons. 

Before  the  lesson,  sort  the  leaves  into  piles  for  the  pupils, 
as  suggested  for  buds  and  stems.  Be  sure  the  piles  are  ex- 
actly alike.  They  had  better  be  rolled  up  again  in  the  cloth 
till  the  time  when  they  are  needed. 

What  now  do  we  wish  to  do  ?  Briefly,  to  familiarize  the 
children  with  some  of  the  variations  of  the  leaf,  and  train 
the  observing  powers  by  seeing  and  handling  well-se- 
lected material. 

As  the  material  is  perishable,  work  must  be  pushed. 

1.  Give  each  pupil  a  set  of  leaves. 

2.  Who  can  tell  me  something  he  notices  ?    Yes,  James, 
hold  it  up  so  that  all  can  see  your  red  leaf.    Each  find  as 
many  red  leaves  in  your  pile  as  you  can.     Who  has  seen 
something  else  ?    "  This  leaf  has  a  stem."    Good  !  Your  eyes 


120  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

are  opening  fast.  Now  each  sort  his  leaves  in  two  piles — 
one  with  and  one  without  stems.  Mary,  how  many  have 
you  with  no  stems  ?  "  5."  That  is  right.  John,  how  many 
with  stems  ?  U13."  Kate,  how  many  leaves  have  you  al- 
together ?  "18."  Right  !  Well,  Peter,  is  this  one  leaf,  or 
many  ?  Hold  it  up,  and  all  find  the  same.  (Holds  up  a  com- 
pound leaf.)  Look  carefully  for  a  bud  in  the  angle  made  by 
each  little  leaf  and  the  stem  it  grows  from.  Do  you  find 
any  ?  "No."  Then  it  is  one  leaf,  and  the  parts  are  called 
leaflets.  What  did  we  always  find  just  below  or  around 
the  bud  when  we  studied  stems  ?  "  A  scar."  What  made 
the  scar  ?  "  A  falling  leaf  left  it."  What  shall  we  always 
find  just  where  a  leaf  joins  the  stem  ?  "  A  bud. "  How  can  we 
tell  a  leaflet?  "It  has  no  bud."  How  many  leaflets  has 
this  rose  leaf  ?  "  5."  "  Mine  has  seven — 5  large,  and  2  little 
ones  at  the  bottom."  Sharp  eyes  again  !  But  first  let  us  sort 
out  all  the  leaves  having  more  than  one  part.  How  many, 
Kate  ?  "3."  Yes,  rose,  strawberry,  and  locust.  They  are 
called  compound  leaves.  Jane's  eyes  found  two  little  leaflets 
at  the  bottom  of  the  rose.  Do  all  see  them  ?  Things  which 
grow  out  near  the  bottom  of  the  leaf  stalk  are  called  stipules. 
Find  how  many  leaves  have  stipules,  Henry.  "3."  Has 
any  one  been  able  to  find  any  more  ?  (Sam) — "  You  told 
Kate  there  were  only  3  compound  leaves."  Ah,  I  see  the 
trouble — look  all  your  leaves  over.  Ralph  has  another  ! 
Some  one  has  five  !  Don't  hold  them  up.  Each  try  to  find 
his  own  stipules.  Has  anyone  more  than  five?  "No." 
Rachel  may  hold  up  her  stipules.  "  But  some  of  those  stip- 
ules are  not  little  leaves  ! "  That  is  right,  John ;  tell  me 
what  they  are.  "One  has  thorns,  and  another  climbers." 
Do  they  grow  out  near  the  bottom  of  the  leaf  stalk,  and 
differ  from  the  blade  of  the  leaf  ?  "  Yes."  Then  it  matters 
not  what  they  are  like,  they  are  always  stipules.  Let  us 
learn  these  leaves.  Who  can  name  one  ?  "  This  is  a  rose 
leaf."  Tell  us  about  it.  "It  has  5  leaflets  and  2  stipules." 
"This  is  a  strawberry  leaf."  Describe  it.  "  The  strawberry 
leaf  has  only  3  leaflets  and  2  little  stipules."  "  This  pansy 


STEP  X.— PLANTS. 

leaf  has  one  part  and  two  large  leafy  stipules."  No  one 
seems  to  know  the  others.  The  one  with  many  leaflets  is 
from  the  locust.  How  would  you  know  it  ?  "  By  its  thorns 
for  stipules."  "  Each  leaflet  even  has  little  thorns."  Yes,  it 
is  a  very  interesting  leaf.  This  other  leaf,  with  tendrils 
for  stipules,  is  the  green  hrier.  What  do  you  notice  about 
it  ?  ult  is  bigger."  Yes  ;  anything  else  ?  "Has  only  one 
leaflet."  Well  said  !  When  a  leaf  has  only  "  one  leaflet" 
we  call  it  a  simple  leaf.  Anything  else  about  the  green- 
brier  leaf  ?  u  These  lines  or  ridges  on  the  back  stick  up  a 
good  deal."  Those  are  called  the  veins  of  the  leaf.  Hold  it 
up  to  the  light,  and  see  how  they  look.  u  They  all  run  side 
by  side,  from  the  stem  to  the  end."  Bright  boy  !  Henry 
has  indeed  made  a  discovery.  But  we  must  close  for  this 
time.  Here  is  a  label  for  each  of  you.  Lay  your  leaves  in 
a  smooth,  neat  pile,  and  at  the  signal  all  may  march  by  me, 
and  give  me  your  leaves  to  roll  up  in  this  damp  cloth,  to 
keep  them  till  to-morrow.  How  many  think  that  they  can 
find  some  of  the  things  talked  of  to-day,  and  bring  them  to- 
morrow ?  (Almost  every  hand.)  I  am  glad  that  you  feel 
such  interest  in  this  work,  for  it  will  make  you  wiser  and 
happier  every  day  you  live. 

3.  Review  before  beginning  a  new  lesson.     These  are 
some  of  the  ways  in  which  it  can  be  done : 

Who  can  draw  anything  we  talked  of  yesterday  ?  (Class 
tell  what  the  drawings  represent.) 

Who  has  found  and  can  show  me  something  we  talked 
of  ?  (Class  again  tell  what  it  is.) 

Who  can  describe  something,  and  see  if  we  can  find  out 
their  thought  ? 

Who  can  tell  anything  ? 

4.  Continue  the  work  in  this  way  till  all  the  points  re- 
garding a  leaf  have  been  brought  out.     The  daily  gather- 
ing by  the  pupils  will  add    much    to    the   interest    and 
make    the  "  home    connection."      Have    them    bring    old 
magazines  and  press  perfect  leaves  of  medium  size.     En- 
<x>urage  them  by  the  offer  of  paper  to  mount  them  on,  or 


122  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

the  gift  of  a  rare  or  curious  leaf  or  two  from  your  own 
store.* 

Mounting  is  best  done  thus: 

1.  The  leaves  must  he  thoroughly  dry.    Have  gum  ready. 

2.  Lay  down  a  card  and  select  and  arrange  on  it  the 
leaves  that  you  wish  to  group  or  that  look  tastefully. 

3.  By  wetting  a  finger  lift  a  leaf  and  put  a  drop  of  gum 
on  the  paper  where  the  middle  of  the  leaf  was,  and  then 
drop  the  leaf  on  the  gum.     When  all  on  the  sheet  have 
gum  under  them,  lay  another  card  over  all  and  rub  over 
each  leaf.    This  will  spread  the  gum,  and  it  is  seldom  that 
any  will  show  at  the  edges.    Put  a  weight  on  that  sheet,  and 
paste  another.    Before  they  are  dry,  repile  the  sheets,  as 
they  may  occasionally  stick  a  little.     Keep  under  pressure 
till  thoroughly  dry.     Neat  portfolios  can  be  made,  or  the 
cards  be  made  into  book  form  with  tape.     Leaves  might  be 
pasted  on  both  sides,  and  then  the  cards   arranged  to  fold 
like  the  albums  of  views  sold  by  newsdealers. 

"Blue  Prints." — These  have  proved  a  great  source  of 
happiness  in  the  limited  trial  I  have  given  them,  and  I  feel 
sure  can  be  used  in  much  school  work.  The  paper — k<  ferro- 
prussiate" — can  be  purchased  of  dealers  in  photographic 
supplies  at  a  cost  of  about  15  cents  per  100,  2  x  2^-inch 
pieces  made  from  the  trimmings  which  are  usually  thrown 
away ;  or  "  homemade  "  at  a  very  small  cost  by  following 
the  directions  in  almost  any  book  on  photography.!  Let 
each  child  find  a  piece  of  thick  clear  glass  about  4  inches 
square.  Plate  glass  is  best,  but  broken  pieces  of  common 
window  glass  will  do. 

At  an  appropriate  time  give  the  school  a  lesson  on — 
How  to  make  "  Nature  Prints."— Choose  some  thin  leaf 
(pressed  or  fresh),  a  book,  smooth  board,  or  sunny  window 
ledge,  and  a  piece  of  clean  glass.    Take  a  piece  of  the  sensi- 

*  Send  to  some  wholesale  paper  house  and  have  some  thin  cardboard 
cut;  the  expense  is  very  light. 

t  Arthur  Hope's  Amateur  Photographer's  Handbook  is  excellent 


STEP  X.— PLANTS.  123 

live  paper  from  its  protecting  envelope,  lay  it  quickly, 
colored  side  up,  on  the  book  or  other  smooth  support,  place 
the  leaf  in  a  graceful  position  upon  it,  and  lay  the  glass  over 
to  hold  it  close  to  the  paper  while  the  printing  is  being 
done.  All  this  is  best  done  in  the  shade  of  some  corner. 
Place  it  now  in  bright  sunshine  till  the  paper  around  the 
leaf  is  of  a  brownish-blue  color.  Then  remove  the  paper 
and  quickly  dip  it  face  down  into  a  basin  of  clean  water. 
After  five  to  ten  minutes  soaking  the  whites  will  be  washed 
clear,  and  with  a  final  rinsing  in  clean  water  the  prints  can 
be  hung  up  to  dry. 

Names  (or  other  marks)  of  the  leaf  or  child  can  be 
printed  by  writing  with  ink  on  a  small  slip  of  thin  paper,  to 
be  laid  (writing  up)  on  one  corner  of  the  blue  paper  at 
the  same  time  as  the  leaf.  Now  let  the  presentation  of  a 
good  leaf  and  slip  of  glass,  with  a  book  to  place  the  blue 
paper  in  till  the  moment  of  use,  be  all  that  is  required  for 
the  pupil  to  receive  a  piece  of  paper  and  try  a  print  him- 
self. 

When  that  is  made  and  dry,  let  him  bring  it  for  inspec- 
tion (and  help  if  he  has  failed),  and  try  again. 

Printing  frames  like  those  used  in  photography  are 
very  convenient,  and  some  of  the  boys  might  make  them 
easily. 

Review,  if  need  be,  with  new  and  unseen  material  gath- 
ered by  the  pupils,  but  do  not  let  the  work  drag.  When  the 
majority  of  the  class  have  learned  the  lesson,  let  them  reap 
the  merited  reward  and  be  excused  from  going  over  the 
dry  bones  again. 

Material  put  away.— There  will  not  be  much.  Shallow 
boxes  (handkerchief  or  glove  boxes  from  the  store  are  good) 
are  best.  Should  time  permit,  the  advanced  pupils  can  be 
set  to  work  pressing  30  or  40  nice  leaves  of  each  kind  for 
you  to  use  next  time. 

The  next  step  in  Plants  is  XII — Trees. 


STEP  XL— ANIMALS. 
FOREIGN  OR  LESS  FAMILIAR,  BUT  TYPICAL  AND  USEFUL. 

Object. — 1.  To  study  those  types  which  are  less  familiar 
or  more  difficult. 

2.  Increase  true  geographical  concepts. 

3.  To  observe  the  autumn  aspect  of  animal  life. 

4.  To  continue  the  work  of  the  previous  steps. 

Time. — Begin  at  once  on  the  opening  of  school  in  the 
fall.*  It  will  be  a  grand  review  of  the  summer's  experiences, 
and  aid  the  pupils  by  its  ease  and  interest  to  make  a  grace- 
ful transition  from  active  out-of-door  life  to  schoolroom 
work.  Have  the  lessons  at  such  time  of  the  session  as  the 
children  are  most  restless  and  the  greatest  freedom  can  be 
given.  About  fifty  lessons  of  twenty  minutes  each  will  be 
required,  which  will  be  an  average  of  six  points  a  day. 

Material. — For  a  class  of  thirty,  procure,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible— 

Coral — 15  fragments  of  some  kind. 

Sponge— 30  small  ones  (at  wholesale  druggist's). 

Starfish — 15  dried  specimens. 

Clam  shells— 30  mated  pairs  (from  some  eating-house  or 
fish  store)  and  some  "  wampum." 

Twigs  of  oak  tree  cut  off  by  the  "pruner"  beetle  (under 
trees). 

Locusts — 40  specimens  in  alcohol. 

Silk — raw,  cocoons,  cloth,  etc. 

Galls— 30  of  some  one  kind,  and  samples  of  as  many  kinds 
as  can  be  found. 

*  Should  there  be  danger  that  the  fruits  for  the  next  step  (trees)  disap- 
pear, these  lessons  can  be  stopped  at  the  chameleon  and  continued  later. 

(124) 


STEP  XL— ANIMALS.  125 

Honeycomb,  and  several  mounted  drones  and  workers. 

Chameleon — alive  or  in  alcohol. 

Ostrich  plume. 

Skins  of  gull  and  cowbird. 

Nest  of  some  bird  with  cowbird  egg  in  it. 

Beaver  gnaw  ings. 

Bat  skin. 

Whalebone  and  oil. 

Ivory  (ornament  or  in  any  shape). 

Camel's-hair  brush,  cloth,  etc. 

Seal  skin  (bits  from  the  furrier). 

Pictures  illustrating  the  animals  and  their  surroundings. 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher.— Gather  material  and  go 
through  the  lessons  beforehand.  Should  it  be  impossible 
to  illustrate  any  point,  omit  it,  rather  than  tell  anything  the 
child  can  reasonably  expect  to  find  out,  although  in  the 
case  of  foreign  animals  more  help  will  need  to  be  given 
than  with  natives.  As  in  previous  steps,  the  order  in 
which  the  animals  are  taken  up  is  immaterial,  and  conven- 
ience must  dictate.  Lose  no  time  waiting,  and,  if  need  be, 
defer  such  as  can  not  be  illustrated  with  reasonable  effort 
till  some  other  time.  The  order  given  has  been  arranged  to 
take  up  first  those  most  apt  to  disappear  through  frost,  etc. 
In  all  work,  adhere  strictly  to  the  particular  animal  in  hand, 
and  not  confuse  and  mislead  by  bringing  in  things  regard- 
ing other  species. 

The  Lessons. — See  suggestions  regarding  these  preceding 
Step  V,  and  firmly  adhere  to  the  rule  not  to  tell  anything 
it  is  possible  to  avoid.  What  follows  is  for  the  aid  of  the 
teacher,  to  be  in  no  case  (except  illustrative  anecdote)  read 
to  or  by  the  pupil.  To  illustrate  my  meaning,  I  will  give 
the  way  I  should  take  up  the 


126  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Meat  Fly  (No.  19).* 

Having  found  some  small  dead  animal  or  bird,  or,  failing, 
a  bit  of  stale  fresh  meat,  place  it  where  these  flies  can 
u  blow  "  it,  call  the  children's  attention  to  the  big  greenish 
flies,  and  later  to  the  eggs  laid  on  the  meat. 

When  all  have  seen  the  eggs,  place  the  date,  to  the  hour, 
on  the  blackboard,  and,  if  possible,  add  the  time  they  hatch 
(often  in  three  or  four  hours). 

Leave  this  flesh  and  maggots  where  the  class  can  watch 
them,  and  proceed  with  other  work  during  the  few  days  it  will 
take  for  the  maggots  to  pupate  and  hatch  into  flies,  f  Kill 
enough  of  the  flies  (in  alcohol)  so  that  each  child  can  have 
one,  and  save  the  pupa  skins.  Then  draw  out  these  points : 

4.  Have  flies  eyes  ?    How  many  ?    Examine  them  care- 
fully, and  tell  me  how  they  look.     (Crossed  by  fine  lines.) 
Each  little  space  between  these  lines  is  considered  one  eye, 
and  when  many  are  thus  gathered  together  it  forms  a  com- 
pound  eye.    Look  at  this  picture  of  a  fly's  eye  magnified. 

5.  Can  meat  flies  smell  ?  What  reason  have  you  to  think 
so  ?    One  day  I  noticed  many  of  these  flies  on  the  screens  of 
the  kitchen  windows,  and,  on  entering,  found  the  room  full 
of  the  odor  from  a  piece  of  tainted  meat  that  was  boiling. 
Would  the  sense  of  smell  be  helpful  to  these  flies  ?    "  Yes,  aid 
in  finding  a  place  to  lay  their  eggs." 

7.  Can  these  flies  walk  up  a  wall  ?  Try  to  see  the  feet  of 
one  on  the  other  side  of  a  pane  of  glass. 

8. How  many  legs  has  a  fly  ?  "  Six."  How  many 
wings  ?  "  Two."  What  kind  of  wings  ?  u  Gauzy." 

9.  How  many  parts  to  the  body  ?    "  Three." 

10.  What  do  these  flies  live  upon  ?    "  Decaying  meat." 
We  call  this  carrion. 

20.  Flies  make  what  sounds  ?    "  Buzzing." 

*  All  numbers  refer  to  the  list  of  chosen  animals  or  selected  points 
in  Step  V. 

t  See  Harris's  Insects,  p.  614. 


STEP  XI.— ANIMALS.  127 

24.  Of  what  shape  are  the  eggs  ?  "  Cylindrical.11  Where 
are  they  laid  ?  "  On  food  for  young."  What  name  do  we 
give  to  young  flies  ?  u  Maggots."  Where  did  the  brown, 
seedlike  things  we  saw  come  from  ?  "  The  maggots  turned 
into  them."  Did  they  seem  to  he  alive  ?  "  No."  Were 
they  really  dead  maggots  ?  "  No,  for  flies  hatched  from 
them."  What  are  the  stages  in  a  fly's  life  ?  "  The  egg,  the 
soft  white  maggot,  the  resting  brown  pupa,  and  the  fly." 

27.  Who  can  think  of  an  important  service  flies  do  for 
us?  "Remove  carrion."  When  we  carelessly  leave  food 
uncovered,  is  it  the  fly's  fault  or  a  merit  that  she  promptly 
lays  eggs  ?  Suppose  no  flies  were  about  ?  "  Would  pollute 
the  air  for  a  long  time."  What  happened  in  the  case  of  our 
mouse  ?  "  Seemed  to  dry  up  and  disappear,  all  but  the  skin 
and  bones."  What  really  happened  ?  "  Maggots  ate  up  the 
decaying  flesh." 

Bemarks.— Many  will  doubtless  think  that  I  have  omitted 
too  many  interesting  and  instructive  things.  No  one  is 
more  fully  conscious  of  the  fact  than  I,  but  it  is  deliberately 
done,  and  for  a  good  reason.  .  This  much  all  can  take  and 
remember;  and  interest  will  be  awakened,  and  in  future 
years,  when  more  observing  has  been  done  and  maturity 
obtained,  will  come  the  time  to  complete  the  work. 

The  Tumble  Beetle  (No.  17). 

September  is  a  little  late  to  find  these  remarkable  insects 
at  their  work,  but  it  varies  with  the  season. 

Search  should  be  made  for  them  in  the  dusk  of  evening, 
or  by  a  lantern  around  the  manure  of  cows  in  a  pasture. 
Should  the  insects  be  found,  lift  the  whole  mass  of  manure 
and  beetles  with  a  large  shovel  and  place  gently  on  earth  in 
a  wide  box  previously  prepared,  and  then  cover  with  wire 
screen.  This  can  be  placed  in  the  school  yard  for  observa- 
tion, although  but  little  can  be  seen  unless  watched  at  night. 
After  the  beetles  have  buried  their  balls,  drop  a  few  (beetles) 
in  alcohol.  Removing  one  side  from  the  box,  carefully  dig 
away  the  earth  till  one  or  two  balls  are  found.  Open  these 


128  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

to  find  the  grub  inside,  where  the  egg  was  placed  by  the 
mother. 

If  more  balls  are  examined  later  the  grub  will  be  found 
to  have  become  a  pupa.  Much  of  this  work  and  study  can 
bo  done  by  the  pupils  out  of  school  hours,  and  be  just  as 
good  "  fun  "  as  cheating  at  marbles  or  splitting  each  other's 
tops.  Now  take  up  the  study  and  note — 

8.  The  antennce  are  composed  of  plates  at  the  end,  and 
are  probably  the  complicated  u  noses. "  The  inside  wings  are 
different  from  the  shelly  outer  ones. 

10.  Its  food  is  the  excrement  of  animals. 

22.  It  kneads  the  excrement  into  balls  with  its  shovel- 
like  head,  inserts  an  egg  in  the  center,  and  then  two  or 
more  unite  in  rolling  this  ball  to  a  hole  they  have  dug  for 
its  reception  and  cover  it  with  earth. 

24.  The  egg,  thus  placed  in  a  mass  of  food,  soon  hatches 
to  a  grub,  which  eats  a  home  for  itself  in  the  ball. 

25.  Remarkable  instinct  is  thus  shown  in  providing  for 
the  young. 

27.  They  serve  by  the  removal  of  excrement.  Now  point 
out  Egypt  on  the  map  and,  showing  a  real  scarabaeus,  or  the 
picture  of  one,*  tell  the  class  how  that  old  nation  worshiped 
this  beetle,  seeing  in  the  "  ball "  a  model  of  the  earth,  in  cer- 
tain projections  about  the  head  the  rays  of  the  sacred  sun, 
in  the  30  joints  of  the  feet  the  days  of  the  month ;  and  in 
the  development  of  the  perfect  beetle  from  its  mummylike 
pupa  the  looked-for  resurrection. 

The  Aphides,  or  Ants'  Cows  (No.  12). 

Tell  the  children  how  they  look,  or  aid  in  the  search  till 
some  are  found,  and  they  will  follow  the  matter  up  and  find 
plenty  of  colonies.  The  question,  "  Are  they  really  cows  to 
the  ants  ? "  will  set  many  eyes  to  work,  and  soon  the  class 
will  be  in  possession  of  the  answers  to  the  following 
points: 

*  See  Kiverside  Natural  History,  vol.  ii,  p.  374. 


STEP  XI.— ANIMALS.  129 

10.  Their  food  is  the  sap  of  plants. 

12.  The  mouth  parts  form  a  piercing  beak. 

20.  They  understand  the  touch  of  the  ants. 

24.  There  are  different  kinds  of  young,  some  winged  and 
some  not. 

27.  They  feed  the  ants  with  a  sweet  liquid  made  out  of 
the  sap  they  suck  in,  and  also  cause  deformed  places  on  the 
leaves  where  they  are  fixed.  Now  find  Mexico  on  a  map,  and 
pictures  of  the  cochineal  bug,  *  and  show  the  class  a  relative 
of  our  aphis.  Show  a  few  grains  of  cochineal  from  the  drug- 
gist's, and  some  red  candy  colored  with  it.  Soak  some  pow- 
dered cochineal  in  water  and  see  the  color. 

The  Garden  Spider  (No.  8). 

Call  the  attention  of  the  class  to  these  animals  and  their 
curious  webs.  After  some  observing  has  been  done  these 
points  can  be  drawn  out — 

2.  A  spider  knows  when  something  is  in  her  web  by  feel- 
ing the  jerks  of  the  struggling  creature. 

4.  A  spider  has  8  simple  eyes  on  the  top  of  its  head. 

8.  Has  8  legs,  and  no  wings. 

9.  There  are  two  parts  to  the  body. 

10.  Its  food  consists  of  the  juices  of  insects. 

21.  Spiders  are  solitary  in  their  habits.    Why  ? 

22.  They  make  homes,  and  traps  to  catch  their  prey,  with 
a  kind  of  silken  material  they  can  give  out. 

24.  The  eggs  are  protected  by  a  covering  of  web  and 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.    The  young  are  active  as 
soon  as  hatched. 

25.  The  spider  shows  great  forethought  in  its  web  and 
home  and  the  care  of  its  eggs.     Only  those  who  have  ex- 
amined a  web  can  appreciate  the  skill  with  which  a  favor- 
able location  is   selected,  the  web  laid   out,  constructed, 
and  repaired.    The  simple  problem  of  keeping  it  tightly 
stretched,  by  means  of  guy  ropes,  to  objects  at  irregular 

*  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  ii,  p.  218. 
11 


130  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

distances,  is  in  itself  a  serious  problem,  and  yet  the  spider 
does  it  with  apparent  ease. 

26.  These  and  other  accomplishments  have  well  entitled 
the  spider  to  be  called  ingenious  and  persevering.  Head 
the  story  of  Bruce  and  the  Spider,  and  Isaiah  lix,  5. 

A  suggestive  illustration  will  be  my  experience  in  raising 
caterpillars  in  a  large  empty  room  one  summer  to  study 
their  growth.  My  greatest  trials  came  from  the  spiders, 
which  seemed  to  abound.  Every  little  while  some  choice 
caterpillar  would  escape,  and  I  was  sure  to  find  it  wound  up 
in  webs  and  dead.  Some  of  these  victims  were  as  large  as 
one's  little  finger,  and  yet  not  only  were  they  captured 
and  killed  by  their  tiny  foes,  but  were  raised  at  times  to 
the  under  side  of  a  chair  board,  some  80  inches  from  the 
floor  ! 

What  a  chance  I  missed,  when  my  disgust  at  the  loss 
caused  me  to  brush  the  webs  and  all  away  before  I  had  seen 
how  such  a  feat  was  done ! 

The  Bat  (No.  51). 

These  hibernate  early  in  the  fall,  and  should  be  studied 
before  that  time.  Search  for  them  in  hollow  trees,  caves, 
or  the  dark  corners  of  roofs,  etc.  Call  the  children's  atten- 
tion to  them  as  they  fly  about  in  the  dusk  after  food. 
The  following  points  are  to  be  illustrated  by  it: 

2.  Its  sense  of  feeling  is  very  acute,  and  aids  it  in  its 
flight  to  avoid  obstacles.     Bats  have  been  blinded  and  let 
loose  in  crooked  passages  and  spaces  with  obstacles  hung  in 
them,  and  not  only  did  they  avoid  the  obstacles  and  turn 
corners  in  safety,  but  they  chose  resting  places  and  found 
holes  to  escape  just  as  well  as  those  not  blinded.* 

3.  The  ears  are  very  large.     Doubtless  much  of   the 
bat's   knowledge  of  its    surroundings   comes  through   its 
hearing. 

*  W.  S.  Dallas,  in  Studies  of  Animated  Nature,  Humboldt  Lib.,  No.  84, 
and  Riverside  Natural  History,  Bats. 


STEP  XL— ANIMALS.  131 

The  buzzing  insect,  the  reflected  sounds  from  obstacles 
in  the  way,  the  cries  of  its  comrades,  while  so  inaudible  to 
us  that  we  speak  of  u  bats  on  noiseless  wing,"  still  may  be 
very  distinct  to  the  more  finely  organized  ears  of  a  bat. 

7.  Their  flight  is  noiseless  to  us,  and  at  night. 

8.  They  have  two  wings,  with  hooks  at  the  joints  to 
hang  by. 

10.  Their  food  consists  of  night-flying  insects,  caught  on 
the  wing. 

14.  They  breathe  air  by  lungs. 

15.  Are  clad  in  fur. 

20.  The  voice  is  a  kind  of  shrill  " clicking"  pitched  so 
high  as  to  be  inaudible  to  some  human  ears. 

21 .  They  are  social  in  hibernation. 

24.  The  one  or  two  young  are  nursed  by  the  mother. 

27.  Bats  are  perfectly  harmless,  and  of  great  service  to 
man  in  destroying  insects  at  nigbt. 

28.  Bats  make  rich  deposits  of  "  peter  dirt,"  from  which 
much  saltpeter  is  obtained  in  times  of  need  for  gunpow- 
der, etc. 

Bats  habitually  hide  in  vast  multitudes  in  caves  and 
under  ledges  of  rock  where  rain  never  falls.  Their  drop- 
pings accumulate  from  year  to  year  and  form  layers  of  earth 
strongly  impregnated  with  saltpeter.  This  is  leached  out 
by  water,  crystallized,  and  used.* 

The  Locust  (No.  11). 

These  will  be  found  laying  their  eggs  in  cracks  in  the 
ground,  so  that  all  stages  can  be  found,  from  the  perfect  in- 
sect with  wings,  through  the  active  but  wingless  larvae,  to 
the  unhatched  egg.  Set  the  pupils  to  watching  them  several 
days  before  the  work  is  taken  up,  and  if  a  number  of  adult 
insects  can  be  confined  in  a  box  of  earth  they  will  lay  tbeir 
eggs,  which  can  be  observed  in  hatching  next  spring.  De- 
velop these  points : 

*  See  History  of  Mammoth  Cave,  etc. 


132  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

7.  Locusts  jump. 

8.  Note  the  powerful  hind  legs ;  the  two  straight  wing 
covers,  which  give  them  the  name  of  u  orthoptera,"  and  the 
gauzy  under  wings,  folded  like  a  fan. 

9.  Lead  the  class  to  notice  that  the  two  sides  of  the  body 
are  alike. 

10.  From  hirth  to  death  its  food  is  herbage. 

20.  Its  voice  is  a  chirrup. 

21.  They  are  social  in  migration.    The  terrible  results 
of  these  are  well  described  in  Exodus  x,  4-19;  Joel  ii,  2-9; 
and  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  ii,  pp.  195-201.    Locate 
Palestine,  Egypt,  Nebraska. 

24.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  earth  and  deserted  by  the 
mother.  The  larvae  and  pupae  are  both  active  and  able  to 
feed  themselves. 

28.  They  are  caught  by  Arabs  (locate  Arabia),  in  bags. 
A  hole  is  dug  in  the  ground  and  thoroughly  heated  by  a 
fire.  The  locusts  are  then  emptied  into  the  hot  hole  and 
covered  with  a  bag  and  some  sand  and  left  to  bake.  After 
breaking  off  the  wings  they  are  said  to  be  very  good  food, 
tasting  like  roasted  nuts. 

The  Bee  (No.  25). 

While  buckwheat  and  golden-rod  are  in  bloom  it  is  a 
good  time  to  study  this  wonderful  insect. 

Visit  some  hive,  and  let  the  pupils  see  them  at  work,  and, 
if  possible,  see  the  inside.  If  an  open  box  of  honey  is  set  in 
the  school  window,  and  two  or  three  captured  bees  permitted 
to  fill  themselves  at  it,  the  school  will  be  much  interested 
to  see  how  these  will  "take  a  bee  line"  home  and  return 
with  others.  Refer  the  boys  to  some  account  of  the  way  to 
find  "  bee  trees,"  and  they  will  enjoy  the  sport  of  tracking 
the  bees  to  their  homes.  If  possible,  have  a  queen  cell  to 
show;  otherwise  get  pictures.  After  some  observing,  de- 
velop these  points : 

8.  Has  4  membranous  wings. 

9.  Body  in  three  parts. 


STEP  XI.— ANIMALS.  133 

10.  Food,  the  nectar  and  pollen  of  flowers.  How  many 
kinds  of  flowers  does  a  bee  visit  each  trip  ? 

19.  Has  a  sting  for  defense. 

20.  Bees  buzz  and  hum. 

21.  Bees  are  social  in  defense,  and  will  attack  an  intruder 
in  swarms.     Also  social  in  work,  each  seeming  to  help  the 
rest  in  the  care  of  young,  building  cells,  etc. 

22.  Bees  make  wax,  and  construct  cells  with  it  for  their 
honey  and  young. 

23.  They  are  remarkable  for  the  care  shown  to  the  young, 
and  are  for  this  reason  ranked  among  the  highest  insects. 

Another  trait  of  their  family  life  is  the  way  they  make 
room  for  others.  When  a  hive  is  prosperous,  young  bees 
are  hatching  out  rapidly,  and  food  is  plenty,  the  workers 
construct  some  of  the  large,  vertical  queen  cells.  An  egg 
is  placed  in  each  and  the  larva  fed  with  royal  food.  When 
fully  grown  the  larvae  stop  eating,  and  the  workers  then 
close  up  the  cells  while  the  pupae  are  changing  into  queen 
bees.  When  one  of  these  is  nearly  ready  to  come  out,  she 
sets  up  a  "  piping  "  noise,  and  if  the  weather  is  fair  and  all 
propitious,  the  old  queen  leaves  the  hive,  followed  by  nearly 
all  the  grown  bees  then  at  home.  After  the  swarm  has 
gathered  in  the  air  they  dash  away  to  a  new  home. 

From  the  directness  with  which  this  is  sought,  it  seems 
probable  that  it  is  selected  beforehand.  A  young  queen 
now  hatches,  and  with  the  remaining  old  bees  and  the  hatch- 
ing new  ones  continues  the  life  of  the  old  hive.  The  stores 
of  an  ownerless  swarm  constitute  "  wild  honey." 

24.  The  young  bees,  which  require  such  constant  care 
and  feeding  from  the  workers,  are  called  larvce.    These  are 
of  three  kinds — found  in  three  different  kinds  of  cells,  and 
called  queens,  drones,  and  workers. 

25.  The  instinct  of  bees  is  closely  akin  to  reason.    Be- 
fore leaving  food  a  bee  observes  the  place  so  as  to  return 
to  it. 

They  are  weatherwise,  and  should  rain  threaten  will  not 
swarm.  They  show  great  forethought  in  their  building  of 


134:  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

queen  cells  in  anticipation  of  swarming,  in  their  storing  food 
for  winter,  selecting  a  place  for  the  swarm  to  go  to,  etc.* 
How  does  the  bee  teach  us  the  young  and  helpless  should  be 
treated  ?  Do  kindness  and  forbearance  show  greatness  and 
nobility  of  character  ?  Do  you  "  rank  high  "  ? 

26.  From  this  remarkable  history  it  is  easy  to  see  the 
force  of  u  busy  as  a  bee." 

27.  Bees  render  important  service  by  carrying  the  pollen 
for  the  fertilization  of  flowers. 

28.  They  give  honey. 

The  Moth  and  Caterpillar  (No.  SO). 

These  can  well  be  studied  in  connection  with  some  of  our 
native  species,  such  as  the  Cecropia.  It  is  remarkable  that 
the  silk  moth  is  the  only  member  of  the  vast  number  of 
scale-winged  insects  which  is  directly  serviceable  to  man. 
All  other  butterflies  and  moths  are  classed  as  injurious. 

Find  some  of  the  large,  silk-making  caterpillars,!  and  let 
the  children  observe  them  for  a  few  days.  Then  note  such 
of  the  following  points  as  the  opportunities  of  the  class  will 
permit : 

The  caterpillar  has — 

4.  Simple  eyes. 

7.  It  creeps. 

8.  Has  16  legs. 

9.  Has  13  rings  or  parts  to  the  body. 

10.  Eats  vegetable  food. 

13.  Its  jaws  move  from  side  to  side. 

14.  Breathes  by  spiracles  along  the  sides. 
22.  They  make  silken  cocoons. 

The  moths — 

7.  Fly  at  night . 

8.  Have  4  scaly  wings  and  feathered  antennae. 
17.  Note  the  colors  of  the  upper  and  under  sides. 

*  See  Romanes's  Animal  Intelligence,  chap.  iv. 
f  See  Harris's  Injurious  Insects,  pp.  380-397. 


STEP  XI.— ANIMALS.  135 

24.  The  caterpillar  changes  to  a  resting  pupa  inside  the 
cocoon  it  has  spun. 

Now  locate  Japan  or  China,  and  by  specimens  and  pic- 
tures give  some  idea  of  the  important  silk  industry  and  the 
silk  moth. 

The  Gray  Squirrel  (No.  Jfi). 

Have,  if  possible,  a  live  one  in  a  cage  for  the  children  to 
watch  its  motions,  way  of  feeding,  etc.  The  following  points 
are  to  be  brought  out  with  it : 

1.  It  lives  in  trees. 

3.  Its  ears  are  external. 

6.  Has/owr  legs. 

9.  Has  u  a  before  and  a  behind." 

10.  Its  food  is  of  nuts,  seeds,  and  fruits.    How  does  it 
manage  to  get  the  meat  out  of  a  nut  I 

13.  Has  gnawing  teeth,  which  grow  constantly.    Why  ? 
20.  Squirrels  bark. 

22.  They  make  their  nests  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  and 
beds  of  twigs  and  leaves  in  the  tree  tops  for  summer. 

25.  Instinct  causes  the  squirrel  to  hide  little  stores  of 
food  in  the  leaves  or  mold  of  the  forest  till  they  are  needed. 
A  wonderful  memory  seems  to  guide  it  to  this  long-buried 
food,  even  though  the  drifting  leaves  may  have  changed  the 
looks  of  the  place,  or  snow  cover  all  in  its  uniform  mantle. 

27.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  this  habit  of  hiding  seeds  and 
nuts  in  the  ground  causes  the  squirrel  to  be  an  active  agent 
in  helping  plants  get  their  seeds  scattered  and  planted  in 
new  places. 

The  Clam— Hard-shelled  (No.  5). 

Select  the  hard-shelled  u  Venus "  for  this  work  because 
to  the  majority  it  will  be  most  accessible  and  has  siphons; 
but  by  a  little  change  in  the  points  chosen  to  teach,  any 
of  the  fresh-water  clams  of  our  rivers  and  ponds  will  do. 
Have  mated  shells  for  each  pair  of  pupils.  Mates  are  ex- 
actly alike  in  size  and  coloration  both  without  and  within ; 
hence  if  shells  are  gathered,  they  can  be  scrubbed  clean  with 


I3fj  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

a  stiff  brush,  and  then,  while  wet,  laying  all  the  right-hand 
and  left-hand  halves  in  separate  rows,  begin  to  select  by 
color  and  mate  them,  tying  each  pair  together  with  soft 
twine  and  a  "  surgeon's  "  knot. 

At  least  once  during  the  lesson  have  some  fresh  clams 
opened  to  show  the  parts.* 

8.  See  the  one  fleshy  foot. 

See  the  two  muscles  which  run  across  from  shell  to  shell 
to  close  them.  See  the  u  muscle  impressions  "  on  the  cleaned 
shells. 

10.  Note  the  two  pairs  of  feelers  just  above  the  foot. 
These  gather  the  food  as  it  sweeps  by  them  in  the  currents 
of  water  the  clam  takes  in.  Can  it  be  very  choice  in  its 
selection  of  food  ? 

14.  Note  the  two  siphons  at  the  rear  end,  through  which 
water  can  be  had  even  when  the  clam  is  buried  in  the  mud. 
Also  the  pair  of  delicate  gills  on  each  side,  which  take  the 
air  from  the  water  as  it  circulates  over  them. 

15.  Its  covering  is  a  hard,  limy  shell  in  two  parts. 

16.  The  skeleton  is  outside  the  soft,  boneless  body. 

17.  Note  the  purple  color  along  the  edges  of  the  inside  of 
most  shells.     This  purple  portion  formed  the  most  valuable 
kind  of  "  wampum,"  which  the  Indians  used  for  ornament 
and  money. 

19.  The  clam  has  a  hard  shell  for  defense. 

27.  They  serve  by  growing  limy  shells,  which  aid  in 
making  limestones  and  islands. 

28.  Clams  give  food.     (Tell  of  a  New  England  clambake.) 
Also  the  shells  give  wampum,  and  material  for  buttons,  etc., 

The  Oak  Pruner  (No.  15). 

Search  under  the  oak  trees  for  fallen  twigs  whose  ends 
look  as  though  they  have  been  cut  off  in  a  turning  lathe. 
In  the  center  of  the  cut  will  be  seen  a  hole  plugged  full 

*  See  Riverside  Natural  History,  p.  276  of  vol.  i. 


STEP  XI.— ANIMALS.  137 

of  shreds  of  wood.  If  the  twig  is  now  split  lengthwise,  a 
chamber  will  be  opened,  and  lying  in  it  a  white  grub  or  (if 
late  in  the  season)  a  curious  pupa.  The  life  history  of  this 
beetle  is  so  interesting  that  I  have  chosen  it  to  illustrate 
these  points: 

8.  The  oak  pruner  beetle  has  two  shelly  wing-covers 
"  meeting  in  a  straight  line  down  the  back."    The  under 
wings  are  gauzy. 

9.  There  are  13  segments  to  the  body  of  the  larva. 

10.  The  young  beetle  (grub)  lives  on  the  wood  of  live 
twigs  of  the  oak  tree. 

13.  The  jaws  move  from  side  to  side. 

22.  The  larvae  make  galleries  in  wood,  tearing  away  the 
pith  and  fibers  with  their  strong  jaws  and  eating  them. 

25.  Although  the  mother  beetle  does  not  eat  wood,  in- 
stinct causes  her  to  lay  her  eggs  on  young  twigs  of  the  oak ; 
and  although  the  grub  has  had  no  instruction  or  experience, 
it  cunningly  arranges  to  get  down  to  the  ground  by  cutting 
off  the  branch,  all  but  the  bark,  which  holds  the  twig  till  the 
grub  has  retreated  into  its  chamber  and  closed  the  opening 
with  chips  !  The  wind  or  sleet  of  winter  then  brings  it 
down. 

Gall  Insect  (No.  23)* 

As  the  leaves  fall,  the  curious  galls  on  various  plants  be- 
come easy  to  see.  Gather  enough  for  the  class  of  some 
one  kind — the  big  u  oak  apples,"  the  hard,  bulletlike  galls 
which  cluster  on  the  bur  and  white  oak  twigs,  or  some 
other  kind.  Give  these  galls  to  the  class  to  open  and  ob- 
serve. Notice — 

22.  Gall  insects  cause  galls  to  grow  while  in  the  larval 


24.  The  mother  lays  the  eggs  in  the  food  the  young  are 
to  need. 

28.  Galls  are  used  to  make  ink.    Rub  a  wet  knife  on  a 

*  Harris's  Injurious  Insects,  pp.  543-548. 


138  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

gall  and  it  will  be  blackened.  Crush  up  a  lot  of  hard  galls 
and  steep  in  hot  water.  Pour  off  the  liquid,  and  add  some 
pieces  of  sulphate  of  iron. 

Keep  some  galls  in  paper  or  wooden  boxes  till  next  year, 
and  see  what  the  gal]  insect  is  like. 

Let  the  class  see  how  many  kinds  of  galls  they  can  find. 

The  Cow  Blackbird  (No.  4f). 

A  "last  year's  bird's  nest"  is  proverbial  for  a  valueless 
thing ;  nevertheless,  if  the  pupils  are  given  a  hint  that  often 
some  of  the  nests  found  in  thick  bushes  are  two  or  even 
three  storied,  and  have  a  very  curious  history,  they  will  set 
about  the  search  with  eager  curiosity.  Tell  them  to  be  very 
careful  in  their  examinations,  and  bring  the  nest  to  you 
without  damage  or  taking  out  any  eggs  they  may  find 
therein.  If  possible,  see  the  birds  about  cattle,  and  observe 
that— 

7.  Cowbirds  walk. 

21.  They  are  social  in  feeding. 

24.  Their  eggs  are  laid  singly  in  the  nests  of  other  birds 
and  deserted  by  the  mother.  The  young  hatch  sooner  than 
the  eggs  it  is  with,  and  the  stout  birdling  takes  the  food 
which  should  go  to  the  rightful  children.  These  frequently 
starve,  or  are  pushed  out  of  the  nest  by  the  greedy  intruder. 

The  finches  and  sparrows  whom  it  is  apt  to  impose  its 
eggs  upon  are  frequently  smart  enough  to  build  a  nest  over 
the  egg  and  thus  outwit  the  cowbird.  I  have  seen  one  case 
where  this  had  been  done  twice,  and  a  three-storied  nest  re- 
sulted. 

The  Gull  (No.  33). 

This  type  of  the  long-winged  birds  can  be  seen  over  any 
large  body  of  water,  while  the  terns  are  common  about 
inland  ponds  and  lakes,  to  replace  it  if  need  be.  Have  a 
skin,  if  possible,  to  measure. 

8.  Gulls  have  long  wings. 
10.  Their  food  is  fish. 


STEP  XI.— ANIMALS.  139 

20.  Their  voice  is  a  kind  of  "  scream." 

26.  They  show  great  endurance  on  the  wing,  seeming 
never  to  tire. 

27.  They  serve  by  eating  up  all  weak  or  disabled  fish 
and  other  things  in  the  sea,  and  thus  aiding  to  keep  it  sweet 
and  pure. 

28.  They  aid  in  forming  valuable  deposits  of  guano,  such 
as  are  found  on  the  islands  of  the  rainless  districts  west 
of  South  America  and  Africa.*     Locate  Chincha  Islands, 
and  tell  the  class  something  of  them, 

The  American  Chameleon  (No.  80).^ 

While  live  specimens  of  these  can  hardly  be  obtained  in 
the  north,  they  have  some  points  connected  with  them  which 
necessitates  their  study  in  these  lessons. 

Have  a  live  one  in  a  large  cage,  if  possible;  otherwise  get 
pictures  and  alcoholic  specimens. 

1.  Locate  on  the  map  some  southern  country  or  place 
where  the  animal  lives—say  St.  Augustine  or  New  Or- 
leans. 

7.  This  lizard  can  climb  with  ease  on  trees  and  walls. 
Has  5  toes  in  front  and  5  behind. 

10.  Its  food  consists  of  insects. 

12.  Its  food  is  caught  by  a  tongue  which  can  be  quickly 
darted  out. 

15.  It  is  covered  with  scales. 

17.  This  animal  has  a  most  remarkable  power  of  chang- 
ing its  color  to  harmonize  with  its  surroundings.     It  is 
white  below,  and  above  can  assume  shades  varying  from 
emerald  green  to  a  dark  bronze.    Why  is  it  white  below  ? 
What  color  will  it  become  when  on  a  leaf  ?    When  in  a 
shady  place  ? 

18.  How  will  this  power  be  an  advantage  to  the  ani- 
mal ? 

*  See  Guano  and  Guano  Islands  in  encyclopaedia. 
t  See  Riverside  Natural  History,  p.  420,  of  vol.  iii. 


140  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

How  will  its  long  and  slender  toes  and  tail  help  to  con- 
ceal it  ? 

27.  This  lizard  is  very  useful  to  us  in  destroying  injuri- 
ous insects. 

The  Beaver  (No.  48). 

Try,  if  possible,  to  get  some  specimens  of  his  gnawing  and 
a  piece  of  natural  fur ;  also  pictures  of  it,  and  its  houses  and 
dams. 

1.  Find  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  or  other  Northern  State, 
some  town,  lake,  bay,  or  river  which  in  its  name  bears  trace 
of  the  beaver  having  been  there. 

4.  Has  two  eyes. 

7.  Swims  forward. 

8.  Has  webbed  toes  and  a  very  broad  tail  to  swim  with. 
10.  Its  food  is  the  bark  and  twigs  of  trees. 

13.  It  has  broad,  chisel-shaped  teeth  in  front  to  cut  out 
pieces  of  wood  and  gnaw  bark.  As  these  must  wear  away 
fast  through  such  constant  use,  they  grow  constantly. 

15.  Its  covering  is  of  fine  /ur,  overlaid  by  coarse  hair. 

20.  Beavers  signal  to  each  other  by  a  slap  of  the  broad 
tail. 

21.  They  are  social  in  work,  and  all  aid  in  the  construc- 
tion of  their  dams,  etc.* 

22.  They  make  ponds  by  building  a  dam  across  brooks 
and  small  rivers.     In  these  ponds  they  construct  piles  of 
roots,  sticks,  and  mud,  and  in  these  excavate  chambers  for  a 
home  to  live  in.     If  the  banks  are  suitable,  they  burrow  up 
into  them,  so  as  to  have  a  place  of  escape  in  case  their  houses 
are  injured.    They  also  make  slides  down  banks,  to  get  them- 
selves and  their  food  to  the  water. 

23.  The  family  life  is  marked,  and  the  home  is  built  and 
inhabited  by  the  parents  and  their  offspring. 

25.  The  intelligence  of  the  beaver  is  very  great,  as  shown 
in  sentinels  being  placed  on  watch  to  give  the  alarm  in  case 

*  Romanes's  Animal  Intelligence,  p.  367,  etc. 


STEP  XI.— ANIMALS. 

of  danger;  the  forethought  shown  in  building  dams,  storing 
food  at  the  bottom  where  it  can  be  got  in  winter,  and  other 
ways. 

26.  Its  industry  in  working  has  become  proverbial  in 
"  working  like  a  beaver."  They  are  skillful  in  the  way  they 
construct  their  houses  and  dams. 

28.  They  give  a  valuable  fur. 

The  Black  Bear  (No.  59)* 

Little  besides  pictures  can  be  hoped  for  in  the  way  of 
illustrations.  The  following  points  must  therefore  be  devel- 
oped from  such  a  source : 

1,  Locate  North  America  as  its  home. 

4.  Which  way  are  the  nostrils  directed  ?    (Forwards.) 

7.  The  bear  walks  on  the  whole  foot. 

8.  Its  toes  are  five  and  five. 

10.  Its  diet  is  a  mixed  one.  Tell  some  stories  of  his  ex- 
ploits in  varying  his  diet. 

13.  To  adapt  it  for  such  a  diet  it  has  all  kinds  of  teeth. 

15.  Under  its  heavy  coat  of  hair  it  lays  on  a  thick  layer 
of, fat  in  the  fall. 

19.  Bears  growl  as  one  way  of  defense. 

23.  Bears  have  great  attachment  for  their  young,  and 
will  defend  them  at  all  hazard.     So  marked  is  this  as  to 
become  proverbial  in  "  cross  as  a  bear,"  "  like  a  she  bear," 
etc.f 

24.  Little  bears  are  called  cubs. 

25.  Bears  become  very  fat  in  the  fall,  and  then  as  cold 
weather  comes  on,  crawl  into  some  cave  or  hollow  tree,  curl 
up  in  a  ball,  and,  with  the  nose  between  the  paws,  go  into 
a  kind  of  sleep  (which  lasts  till  spring)  called  hibernation. 
During  this  time  no  food  is  eaten. 

28.  The  bear  gives  a  valuable  skin,  also  its  flesh  for  food. 

*  Eiverside  Natural  History,  pp.  376-378  of  vol.  v. 
t  See  Hosea  xiii,  8  :  Proverbs  xvii,  12 ;  II  Samuel  xvii,  8  ;  and  accounts 
of  bears  in  books. 


SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


The  Reindeer  (No.  56)* 

This  interesting  and  useful  animal  can  well  follow  the 
bear.  Secure  good  pictures  of  it  and  its  home. 

1.  Locate  (on  a  map  hung  before  the  children)  Lapland 
and  Finland,  and  show  pictures.  The  climate  is  cold,  and 
the  ground  covered  with  snow  much  of  the  year. 

7.  It  walks  and  trots  on  all  fours. 

8.  Has  two  toes  on  each  foot,  which  are  placed  on  the 
snow  or  ground,  but  has  an  extra  pair  higher  and  behind 
the  others,  to  keep  it  from  sinking  so  easily  in  snow,  mud,  or 
moss.     These  toes,  especially  the  front  ones,  are  clad  in 
large,  broad  -bottomed  hoofs,  which  meet  on  their  inner 
edges,  forming  a  "  divided  "  hoof. 

10.  Its  food  consists  of  herbage  in  the  short  summer,  and 
twigs  of  trees  and  a  kind  of  lichen,  for  which  it  digs  in  the 
snow  with  its  broad  feet  in  the  winter. 

13.  It  has  stout,  grinding  teeth  to  cut  up  twigs,  etc. 

15.  It  is  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  hair. 

19.  Its  horns  are  used  for  defense.  These  are  solid,  and 
fall  off  each  winter,  new  ones  growing  again  in  the  spring. 

27.  The  reindeer  is  used  to  draw  sleds,  and  sometimes  to 
carry  loads. 

28.  It  is  almost  indispensable  to  the  people  who  live  in 
the  north  of  Europe  and  Asia.    Its  milk  is  used  for  food  and 
cheese.     From  its  skins  are  made  tents,  clothing,  rope,  etc. 
The  flesh  is  used  for  food  ;  the  fat  for  lights  ;  the  stomach 
and  intestines  for  food,  windows,  and  waterproof  garments; 
the  sinews  for  thread  ;  and  the  bones  and  horns  for  needles, 
tools,  etc. 

The  Ringed  Seal  (No.  62). 

This  animal  is  to  the  Eskimo  what  the  reindeer  is  to 
the  Lap.  Get  pictures  of  the  ringed  or  the  harp  seal,  as 
the  most  useful  ones,  and  confine  the  study  to  the  animal 
chosen. 

*  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  v,  pp.  305-308. 


STEP  XI.— ANIMALS.  143 

1.  Find  Greenland  on  the  map,  as  its  home  is  in  the  sea 
about  there. 

7.  It  swims  in  the  water,  and  dives. 

8.  Has  flippers  to  swim  with. 

10.  The  food  is  fish,  caught  by  the  seal  in  the  water. 

13.  The  teeth  are  for  tearing  and  cutting  flesh. 

14.  Its  blood  is  warm. 

15.  Its  covering  is  a  close  and  thick  coat  of  stiff  hair. 
Under  the  skin  is  a  layer  of  fat  to  keep  it  warm. 

17.  The  color  of  the  ringed  seal  is  brownish  above  and 
yellowish  white  below.  How  will  this  harmonize  with  dirty 
ice,  snow,  and  foaming  water  ? 

22.  This  seal  is  said  to  form  an  "  igloo  "  or  domed  cavity 
in  the  ice,  where  it  can  come  up  and  in  safety  breathe. 

25.  The  young  seals  are  called  puppies,  and  are  born  and 
kept  in  the  igloo,  where  they  are  safe  from  harm.  The 
mother  suckles  these  pups. 

28.  What  do  these  pretty  creatures  give  to  the  Eskimo  ? 
Fur  skins  for  clothing,  boats,  and  bedding ;  blood  and  flesh 
to  eat;  oil  for  fire  and  lights;  stomach  and  intestines  for 
clothing,  windows,  bags,  and  floats  for  harpoons;  sinews 
for  thread  and  cord  ;  and  bone  for  tools  ! 

The  Whalebone  Whale  (No.  52).* 

This  huge  animal  will  form  an  interesting  contrast  to 
the  seal,  and  continue  our  studies  of  northern  life.  Pro- 
cure some  genuine  whale  bone  and  oil ;  also  good  pictures 
of  the  animal  and  the  arctic  regions. 

1.  Point  out  on  a  map  and  show  pictures  of  the  cold,  ice- 
clad  waters  of  the  north  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Arctic  Oceans. 
They  live  in  these  waters. 

8.  The  whale  swims  by  aid  of  its  huge  tail  and  two 
flippers.  Which  way  is  the  tail  flattened  ? 

10.  Strange  as  it  may  seem  the  food  of  this  mighty  beast 

*  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  v,  pp.  195-208. 


144  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

consists  of  small  animals  which  live  near  the  surface  of  the 


sea.* 

13.  These  tiny  creatures  are  secured  by  means  of  the 
whalebone  strainer  this  whale  has  in  its  mouth.     Opening 
the  huge  mouth,  the  whale  swims  along  near  the  surface 
till  a  quantity  of  food  is  collected,  and  then,  by  closing  the 
mouth  and  raising  the  head,  the  water  is  got  rid  of,  the 
small  animals  being  retained  by  the  plates  of  whalebone, 
and  the  food  swallowed. 

14.  This  whale  has  to  come  to  the  surface  at  intervals  of 
ten  to  twenty  minutes  to  expire  the  impure  air  from  its  lungs 
and  take  in  fresh  air.     The  warm  breath  from  the  lungs 
coming  in  contact  with  the  cool  air  forms  a  column  of  steam. 
This  "spouting  "  is  not  a  jet  of  water,  as  many  suppose. 

15.  To  protect  this  warm-blooded  animal  from  the  chill 
of  the  cold  water,  it  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  blubber 
or  fat. 

19.  Whales  are  seldom  aggressive,  but  in  trying  to  es- 
cape, or  in  the  death  agony,   their    tails  are    dangerous, 
crushing  a  stout  boat  like  an  eggshell. 

20.  Whales  have  no  voice,  but  make  a  blowing  noise  in 
spouting. 

24.  The  young  is  called  a  caZ/,  and  is  suckled  by  the 
mother,  whose  affection  for  her  offspring  is  great. 

28.  The  whalebone  whale  is  much  hunted  for  its  valu- 
able "bone"  (which  is  not  bone  at  all),  and  for  the  oil  ob- 
tained from  the  thick  layer  of  fat  (blubber)  which  protects 
it  from  the  cold. 

The  St.  Bernard  Dog  (No.  60). 

Among  the  many  kinds,  I  have  chosen  this  noble  type 
because  of  his  association  with  so  much  self -forgetful  devo- 
tion to  the  needs  of  others. f  The  pass  of  St.  Bernard,  near 

*  Some  of  these  can  be  found  (pictured)  under  the  names  of  Clione 
borealis  and  Lirnacina  borealis  among  the  lower  mollusks. 

t  See  an  account  of  the  pass  of  St.  Bernard  in  some  encyclopaedia. 


STEP  XL— ANIMALS.  145 

Mt.  Blanc,  was  for  centuries  the  highway  between  western 
Europe  and  sunny  Italy.  Its  highest  point  being  over  8,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  severe  snow-storms  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence ;  and  with  the  stream  of  travelers  coming  and  going, 
it  is  not  at  all  strange  that  many  of  these,  overtaken,  chilled, 
and  bewildered  by  the  snow,  should  lose  their  lives.  A  de- 
sire to  aid  such  people  led  to  the  founding  of  the  Hospice 
of  St.  Bernard  and  the  self-denying  labors  of  the  monks. 
Here  the  docile  and  intelligent  dog  found  ample  room  to 
show  his  character,  which  has  gained  new  luster  by  the  test. 

Having  got  pictures  of  the  Alpine  passes,  etc.,  and  given 
a  little  account  of  the  pass,  its  monks  and  dogs,  take  up  the 
following  points : 

1.  Locate  the  pass  of  St.  Bernard. 

5.  Speak  of  the  dog's  keen  sense  of  smell.  Why  very 
useful  ? 

7.  The  dog  can  run. 

8.  Has  five  toes  in  front  and/owr  behind,  and  blunt  nails. 

12.  Water  and  liquid  food  is  lapped  up. 

13.  The  jaws  move  up  and  down. 

14.  Dogs  do  not  perspire. 

19.  A  dog  defends  himself  by  his  threatening  voice  and 
his  teeth. 

20.  Dogs  growl,  bark,  howl,  and  whine. 

24.  Young  dogs  are  called  puppies,  and  are  suckled  by 
the  mother. 

26.  Dogs  are  fearless,  and  those  of  St.  Bernard  have  at 
times  lost  their  own  lives  in  braving  the  storm  on  their 
errands  of  mercy.     They  are  watchful,  hence  their  use  as 
guards.      Are  also  intelligent,  affectionate,  obedient,  and 
faithful.    Let  these  traits  be  illustrated  by  anecdote  *  and 
from  the  pupils'  own  experience. 

27.  How  they  serve  will  now  be  evident. 


*  Some  aid  will  be  obtained  from  Eomanes's  Animal  Intelligence,  but 
he  seems  to  have  overlooked  much  in  the  dog. 
12 


146  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

The  Elephant  of  Asia  (No.  53)* 

Procure  some  ivory,  and  good  pictures  both  of  the 
animal  and  its  Indian  home. 

1.  Locate  some  place  in  India  of  which  a  picture  can  be 
shown.  Elephants  live  in  warm  climates. 

3.  Has  very  large  ears,  which  are  movable. 

5.  The  nose  of  an  elephant  is  very  long,  and  is  called  a 
proboscis.  Why  does  he  need  such  a  long  nose  ? 

7.  He  walks  on  all  fours. 

8.  Has/owr  legs. 

13.  Has  huge  tusks  among  his  teeth.    These  are  used  to 
uproot  bushes  and  small  trees  for  food. 
17.  Ivory  is  yellowish  white  in  color. 

19.  An  elephant  defends  himself  with  tusks  and  trunk. 

20.  Has  a  kind  of  "  trumpeting  "  voice. 

26.  The  intelligence  of  the  elephant  is  marked,  f    Select 
one  or  two  anecdotes  to  illustrate  this.     Is  also  obedient, 
and  will  kneel  and  do  various  acts  at  the  command  of  its 
driver. 

27.  Elephants  are  used  to  carry   (people  and  baggage, 
timber,  etc.),  lift,  and  do  various  services  for  man. 

28.  They  give  the  ivory  of  their  huge  tusks. 

The  Arabian  Camel  (No.  55).  \ 

1.  Lives  in  hot  climates.  Locate  some  place  which  can 
be  shown  in  a  picture. 

5.  The  nose  can  be  closed  against  sand,  etc. 

8.  The  foot  has  two  toes,  under  which  is  a  broad  cushion 
common  to  both,  which  keeps  them  from  sinking  in  the 
sand. 

10.  Its  food  consists  of  twigs  and  the  scant  herbage  of 
the  desert.  On  these  it  can  thrive,  while  an  abundance  of 

*  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  v,  pp.  215-225. 

t  Romanes,  p.  396  et  seq. 

t  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  v,  p.  279  et  seq. 


STEP  XL— ANIMALS. 

the  food  suited  to  a  cow  is  apt  to  make  it  sick.  It  drinks 
water,  and  its  stomach  is  so  constructed  as  to  hold  a  supply, 
so  that  a  camel  can  go  for  three  days  over  the  hot,  dry  desert, 
without  drinking.  Its  hump  grows  large  when  it  has 
plenty  of  food,  and  smaller  when  it  fasts,  being  a  kind  of 
storehouse. 

15.  The  covering  is  of  hair. 

20.  Its  voice  is  a  roar. 

26.  The  endurance  of  hunger  and  thirst  by  the  camel  is 
remarkable,  and  is  due  to  its  curious  adaptation  to  the  life 
it  leads. 

27.  Camels  are  used  to  carry  persons  and  loads ;  hence 
the  name  u  the  ship  of  the  desert." 

28.  They  give  hair  for  brushes,  shawls,  and  many  other 
things. 

The  Ostrich  of  Africa  (No.  32)* 

Get  an  ostrich  plume,  an  eggshell,  and  some  pictures  of 
it  and  its  native  country.  Develop  the  following  points : 

1.  Locate  the  Sahara  Desert  as  one  of  the  places  these 
birds  inhabit. 

7.  It  runs  swiftly.    Note  how  necessary  this  is  to  enable 
it  to  go  for  food. 

8.  Has  two  legs,  and  tivo  toes  on  each  foot.    Its  wings  are 
too  short  for  flying. 

10.  The  food  consists  of  herbage  and  seeds,  but  it  has  a 
strange  habit  of  picking  up  anything  bright  it  may  see. 
15.  Has  beautiful  silky  plumes  among  its  feathers. 

19.  Defends  itself  by  kicking. 

20.  Makes  a  roaring  noise. 

22.  Make  holes  in  the  sand  for  its  eggs. 

24.  The  eggs  have  a  hard  shell,  and  are  left  in  the  hot 
sand  by  day,  but  the  birds  sit  on  them  at  night. 

25.  Instinct  teaches  the  ostrich  to  hide  her  eggs  in  the 
hot  sand,  and  she  must  have  a  good  knowledge  of  locality 

*  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  iv,  p.  33  et  seq. 


148  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

to  find  them  again ;  also  to  place  sentinels  on  watch,  and 
to  run  away  on  the  approach  of  danger. 

28.  Ostriches  give  valuable  plumes,  and  their  eggs  are 
used  for  food. 

The  Kangaroo  (No.  47)* 

This  curious  animal,  unique  in  many  ways,  will  also 
introduce  the  pupils  to  that  land  where  everything  is  so  un- 
like the  rest  of  the  earth.  Only  pictures  can  be  had  to  illus- 
trate. 

1.  Show  Australia  on  the  map. 

7.  The  kangaroo  hops. 

8.  Note  the  stout  hind  legs  and  the  long  nails;  also  its 
powerful  tail  to  jump  with. 

10.  Its  food  is  herbage,  and  in  the  dry  season  it  digs  up 
the  roots  of  grass,  etc.,  with  its  curious  lower  teeth. 

19.  In  defense  the  kangaroo  mainly  relies  on  its  long 
and  rapid  jumps,  but  it  will  fight  with  the  claws  of  its  hind 
feet  and  its  powerful  tail. 

23.  The  care  of  its  young  is  most  remarkable.  Very 
small  when  born,  the  mother  carries  and  suckles  them  in  a 
pouch  till  able  to  care  for  themselves. 

25.  The  kangaroo,  in  common  with  most  animals,  in- 
stinctively flees  when  danger  threatens. 

The  Vulture  (No.  39)J 

Any  one  of  these  birds  will  do,  but  having  with  the 
camel  introduced  a  picture  of  the  sandy  plains  of  Arabia, 
and  with  the  ostrich  a  scene  in  the  deserts  of  Africa,  I 
should  advise  the  South  American  species.  Having  chosen 
one  kind,  say  the  condor,  adhere  strictly  to  that  alone,  and 
do  not  mislead  and  confuse  by  reference  to  several  kinds. 
Pictures  must  be  depended  on. 

1.  Locate  the  great  plains  of  South  America — if  possible, 

*  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  iv,  pp.  260-277. 
f  Ibid.,  vol.  v,  pp.  24-36. 


STEP  XL— ANIMALS.  149 

on  a  relief  map,  or  at  least  one  colored  to  show  them.  Tell 
or  read  of  the  numerous  animals  which  inhabit  these  vast 
areas,  and  of  the  frequent  deaths  which  must  occur  from 
natural  causes  or  the  violence  of  other  animals.  What  is  to 
become  of  all  this  decaying  flesh  ? 

4.  Vultures  have  two  very  keen  and  far-seeing  eyes. 

7.  Vultures  fly  by  day,  in  circles  high  in  the  air;  so  that 
the  country  may  be  considered  as  under  a  network  of  con- 
centric circles  (draw  on  the  board),  on  each  of  which  a  vul- 
ture is  circling,  but  so  high  in  the  air  as  to  look  like  a  black 
speck  in  the  sky. 

10.  Their  food  is  the  flesh  of  dead  animals  and  is  called 
carrion. 

20.  They  understand  each  other's  motions.     When  one 
sees  a  dead  animal  it  begins  to  descend ;  the  vultures  within 
sight  see  him  and  follow;  others  farther  off  see  these,  and 
so  in  a  short  time  hundreds  will  congregate,  although  not  a 
half  dozen  were  in  sight. 

22.  They  make  nests  on  the  crags  of  rocks. 

26.  Vultures  are  watchful,  and  influenced  by  compan- 
ions. 

27.  They  serve  by  removing  carrion,  and  so  preventing 
disease. 

The  White  Stork  (No.  35)* 

This  bird  has  such  extensive  migrations  as  to  be  seen  in 
many  lands,  but  I  should  locate  it  in  Holland.  Get  pictures 
of  it  and  of  Holland. 

1.  Locate  Holland  on  a  map  before  the  class. 

8.  Has  two  wings. 

21.  They  are  social  in  migration,  gathering  before  they 
fly  away. 

22.  Construct  huge,  coarse  nests  on  the  tops  of  houses 
and  buildings. 

23.  Storks  choose  mates  for  life. 

*  See  encyclopaedias  and  books  of  travel  in  Holland. 


150  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

25.  Storks  gather  in  the  fall,  and  then  fly  away  to  warm- 
er climes.     They  are  very  regular  in  these  migrations,  and 
return  to  the  same  nest  year  after  year. 

26.  This  affection  of  mates  for  each  other  has  made  them 
a  type  of  constancy,  and  they  show  a  confiding  and  trust- 
ful character  in  the  way  they  choose  to  associate  with  men. 
Are  also  helpful  in  destroying  insects,  and  by  removing  the 
offal  from  the  streets  and  country  where  they  live. 

The  Termite  (No.  9).* 

This  remarkable  member  of  the  mosquito-hawk  family 
will  introduce  us  to  the  region  of  Central  Africa.  It  seems 
to  be  a  very  important  insect  in  two  ways :  first,  ranking 
with  the  stork,  vulture,  fly,  and  tumble  beetle  as  a  remover 
of  decaying  substances ;  and  second,  with  the  worm  and  cray- 
fish as  a  gardener,  preparing  the  soil  for  plants.  Procure 
pictures. 

1.  Locate  Africa  on  the  map  of  the  world,  and  then  point 
out  the  central  plateau  region,  where  this  insect  is  most 
abundant. 

10.  Its  food  is  dead  wood. 

19.  The  u  soldier "  termites  have  powerful  jaws  with 
which  to  fight,  and  defend  the  rest  of  the  colony. 

21.  They  are  social  in  work  and  defense,  aiding  each 
other  in  building,  etc.,  and  in  repelling  an  attack  on  their 
huge  dwellings. 

22.  The  termites  are  great  architects.     They  excavate 
with  much  skill  tunnels  in  the  wood  they  are  devouring  and 
make  very  extensive  chambers  and  passage  ways  in  the  earth. 
What  is  dug  away  to  form  these  underground  dwellings  is 
used  above  ground  to  form  the  huge  conical  hills  so  com- 
mon in  pictures,  and,  more  remarkable  still,  to  build  covered 
roads  up  the  trunks  of  trees  so  as  to  reach  the  dead  branches 
above.      Drummond  speaks  of   these    as  being  numerous 

*  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  ii,  pp.  142-147,  and  Drummond's 
Africa. 


STEP  XI.— ANIMALS.  151 

enough  on  the  trees  to  give  a  decidedly  reddish  tinge  to  the 
landscape.* 

23.  The  occupations  in  a  termite  colony  are  divided  be- 
tween the  huge  "  queen  "  who  lays  the  eggs,  the  big-headed 
"  soldiers  "  who  fight,  and  the  u  workers,"  who  perform  the 
real  labor  of  the  family.    Added  to  these  are  the  males,  who 
are  gentlemen  of  leisure. 

24.  There  are  consequently  different  kinds  of  young. 

26.  Termite  workers  are  very  industrious  and  skillful. 

27.  They  serve  by  clearing  tropical  forests  of  all  dead  vege- 
table material,  wood,  leaves,  etc.,  and,  by  constantly  bringing 
the  deep  soil  to  the  surface,  cultivate  and  change  the  soil  for 
the  plants,  where  no  frost  or  worms  ever  act. 

The  Capuchin  Monkey  (No.  63).\ 

I  have  selected  this  representative  of  the  monkeys  be- 
cause of  its  prehensile  tail  and  its  habitat  in  the  forests  of 
South  America.  Secure  pictures  of  some  of  these  monkeys 
and  of  the  forests  in  which  they  live. 

1.  Show  a  map  of  the  world  and  locate  Brazil  and  the 
Amazon  Valley.     Here  the  capuchin  lives  in  the  tree  tops. 

2.  Feeling  is  very  delicate  in  the  monkey's  finger  tips. 

7.  The  capuchin  climbs  about  in  the  trees,  and  is  said  to 
be  able  to  jump  long  distances  to  another  tree  and  catch 
itself  by  hands  and  tail. 

8.  The  capuchin  has    arms  ending  in  hands  to  climb 
with,  and  is  also  aided  by  its  long  tail,  by  which  it  can  hang 
or  by  which  it  can  grasp  things  as  with  a  fifth  hand. 

20.  It  can  make  itself  understood  by  motions  and  by 
loud  cries  and  chattering. 

21.  These  monkeys  are  social  in  all  their  habits,  wander- 
ing through  the  trees  in  troops. 

22.  They  break  off  branches  of  the  trees  and  form  nest- 
like  beds  in  the  tree  tops. 

*  Tropical  Africa,  p.  46. 

t  See  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  v,  pp.  505-507. 


152  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

26.  They  are  sympathetic,  and  will  help  each  other  when 
in  distress,  and  show  many  almost  human  traits  of  char- 
acter.* 

The  Cormorant  (No.  36).  f 

This  example  of  the  birds  with  three  webs  to  their  feet 
will  introduce  the  children  to  a  scene  in  Chinese  life. 

Get  pictures  showing  people  fishing  with  birds,  if  pos- 
sible. 

1.  Locate  China,  and  then  some  river  or  lake  where  this 
method  of  fishing  might  be  used. 

7.  The  cormorant  swims  very  rapidly  under  water  as 
well  as  on  the  surface. 

8.  Has  three  complete  webs  to  its  toes. 

10.  Its  food  consists  of  live  fish,  caught  by  swimming 
after  them. 

15.  It  is  covered  with  feathers. 

26.  The  docility  of  the  cormorant  is  shown  in  the  way 
it  learns  to  obey  its  owners  and  fish  for  them. 

27.  Cormorants  serve  as  fishers  for  their  masters. 

The  Starfish  (No.  3).\ 

The  important  point  here  is  the  radiate  structure.    Have 
dried  specimens  enough  for  the  class.    Note— 
1.  It  lives  in  salt  water. 
7.  Moves  by  its  tube  feet. 

9.  Has  an  above  and  below,  the  parts  being  arranged  in  a 
circle  about  a  center. 

10.  The  food  consists  of  sea  animals,  like  oysters.     In 
feeding,  it  turns  its  stomach  inside  out ! 

27.  It  aids  in  gathering  lime  for  stone,  but  it  does  much 
damage  to  oyster  beds. 

*  See  Komanes's  Animal  Intelligence,  p.  484,  etc.,  for  an  account  of  this 
monkey. 

t  See  Kiverside  Natural  History,  vol.  iv,  p.  191,  etc. 

\  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  i,  pp.  135-138  and  147-160. 


STEP  XL— ANIMALS.  153 

White  Coral  (No.  2).* 

Let  this  interesting  radiate  introduce  the  class  to  the 
island  life  of  the  Pacific.  Have  fragments  enough  so  that 
each  can  observe.  Have  pictures  of  atoll  s,  and  some  lime- 
stone with  fossil  coral  in  it. 

1.  Locate  some  coral  island  in  the  Pacific — say  Tahiti,  of 
the  Society  Islands — of  interest  in  connection  with  Cook's 
voyages  and  with  missionary  labors. 

2.  Coral  animals  secure  their  food  by  touch.    Show  a  pic- 
ture of  the  animal  with  tentacles  extended,  and  give  some 
idea  of  how  these  would  wave  about  in  the  water,  ready  to 
touch  any  little  animal  or  plant  which  might  come  along. 

7.  Coral  animals  can  not  move  from  place  to  place,  but 
only  expand  and  move  the  tentacles  about  in  the  water. 
When  alarmed  they  contract  to  a  rounded  lump  of  flesh. 

8.  These  tentacles  have  many  little  "  lasso  cells,"  f  which 
sting  and  paralyze  the  prey  so  that  the  tentacles  can  secure 
and  pass  it  to  the  mouth. 

9.  The  coral  animal  has  its  parts  arranged  in  a  circle, 
and  so  has  an  "  above  and  below"  rather  than  a  "  before  and 
behind." 

10.  Its  food  consists  of  whatever  comes  along,  not  too 
large  to  get  in  the  mouth  at  the  center  of  its  tentacles. 
From  this  food  it  extracts  the  lime  to  grow  its  skeleton. 

14.  The  coral  animal  takes  air  from  the  water  by  its 
skin. 

15.  It  has  no  covering  but  the  naked  skin. 

16.  Its  skeleton  is   limy,  and  at    the    bottom  (basal). 
These  run  together  in  most  corals,  and  form  masses  or 
branches.     Lead  the  class  to  notice  the  little  radiating  plates 
of  coral  inside  each  tiny  pit  on  a  branch.    The  stomach 
hangs  down  in  the  center  of  these  and  the  mouth  opens  up. 

17.  Show  colored  plates,  if  possible,  of  coral  animals,  and 

*  See  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  i,  pp.  117-120. 

t  See  vol.  i,  pps.  74  and  75  in  Kiverside  Natural  History. 


154  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

speak  of  the  wondrous  beauty  and  brilliancy  of  these  "  sea 
flowers." 

21.  The  coral  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  social,  except  in 
the  sense  that  a  group  grow  and  feed  together. 

22.  Corals  really  make  nothing.  Do  not  so  speak  of  them. 
24.  The  young  are  often  produced  by  the  parent  dividing 

in  two,  or  a  little  one  starting  Hke  a  bud  from  one  side  and 
soon  reaching  its  full  growth. 

27.  Coral  animals  form  (by  growing,  not  by  "making") 
masses  of  hard  coral.     The  waves  break  and  grind  these 
into  fragments,  sand,  and  mud,  which  may  form  islands,  dan- 
gerous reefs  on  which  ships  may  be  wrecked,  or  masses  of 
hard  limestone.    Lime  can  be  made  by  burning  this  stone. 
(Try  some  limestone  and  coral  in  two  test  tubes  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  to  show  their  similar  behavior ;  also  burn  two 
pieces  of  the  same  substances  in  the  fire,  and  then  wet  them, 
to  show  that  they  both  form  lime.) 

The  Sponge  (No.  1)* 

Procure  small  sponges  at  the  wholesale  druggist's, 
enough  for  the  class ;  also  pictures  of  the  fishery. 

1.  Locate  some  place  where  they  grow— the  Adriatic,  or 
Florida  coast. 

Sponges  live  in  salt  water. 

10.  They  take  in  the  water,  with  its  contained  food, 
through  the  side  openings,  and  then  as  it  flows  through  all 
the  channels  the  food  and  air  are  taken  and  the  waste  water 
escapes  through  the  large  holes  at  the  top. 

16.  The  skeleton  is  made  of  horny  and  elastic  fibers  run- 
ning through  the  liverlike  flesh. 

24.  The  eggs  pass  into  the  currents  of  water  and  out  at 
the  top,  developing  to  young  in  the  open  water. 

28.  The  skeleton  of  horny  fibers  is  the  sponge  we  wash 
with. 

*  Riverside  Natural  History,  vol.  i,  pp.  49-65,  and  Hyatt's  Guide  on 
sponges. 


STEP  XI.— ANIMALS.  155 

Review. — None  is  desirable. 

Conclusions. — This  ends  the  animal  work  of  three  years. 
In  observing  these  64  types  the  pupils  will  have  learned 
much  of  real  value,  and  their  eyes  will  have  been  opened 
to  see  things  clearly  and  intelligently. 

In  adhering  strictly  to  the  animal  in  hand,  and  not  try- 
ing to  teach  about  all  kinds  of  butterflies  with  the  cabbage 
butterfly,  nor  about  all  seals  with  the  ringed  seal,  much 
has  been  omitted,  but  I  am  sure  it  is  best. 

Material  put  away. — See  previous  steps  for  suggestions. 

The  next  step  in  Animals  is  The  Boy — XIX. 


STEP  XII.-PLANTS. 
TREKS. 

Object. — Further  acquaintance  with  plants. 

Their  period  of  life — annual,  biennial,  or  perennial. 

To  know  common  trees. 

Exercise  of  the  eye. 

Time. — So  many  trees  are  known  "  by  their  fruits  "  that 
autumn  seems  the  very  best  time  of  the  year.  Recess,  noon, 
after  school,  or  Saturdays  will  alone  give  the  chance  for  the 
rambles  in  the  woods  so  desirable,  and  one  great  advantage 
will  be  that  no  one  need  come  who  does  not  wish  to,  and  the 
teacher  will  be  rid  of  some  whose  "room  may  be  more  en- 
joyable than  their  company."  Still,  by  a  little  lunch,  or 
some  treat  at  the  close  of  the  lesson,  most  can  be  won  over 
to  willing  and  orderly  attendance. 

Should  the  work  of  the  previous  step  (Animals)  threaten 
to  forbid  this  work  by  the  frosts  destroying  the  fruits,  stop 
work  on  that  when  the  native  animals  have  been  studied 
and  take  up  this,  as  the  foreign  animals  can  just  as  well 
come  later. 

Material. — I  am  happy  to  be  relieved  from  telling  of 
any.  "  The  groves  were  God's  first  temples,"  and  it  is  only 
there  that  trees  can  be  learned.  Go  wherever  trees  are 
found. 

Preparation  of  the  teacher  will  consist  in  learning  to 
know  and  love  the  trees.  Read  Thanatopsis,  Among  the 
Trees,  Evangeline,  Hiawatha,  Thomson's  Seasons,  etc. 

Newhall's  Trees  of  Northeast  America  will  be  found 
very  helpful ;  also  any  good  botany.  With  these  in  hand, 


STEP  XII.— PLANTS. 

go  among  the  trees  yourself  and  notice  their  characteristics 
till  you  know  most  of  them  at  sight,  as  well  as  the  peculiari- 
ties of  bark,  leaf,  bud,  and  fruit. 

The  Lessons. — 1.  A  few  terms  need  illustration  and  ex- 
planation. 

By  specimens  to  show  the  class,  and  by  blackboard  work, 
see  that  all  know  what  is  meant  by — 

Trunk— the  single  stem  of  a  tree. 

Spray— -the  tips  and  smaller  branches. 

Head — the  whole  top ;  used  in  speaking  of  the  shape. 

Bark — covering. 

Buds— no  definition  would  be  understood  now. 

Leaves — likewise. 

Spines — sharp  projections. 

Fruit — that  which  contains  the  seed. 

2.  Take  a  Walk.— Let  the  class  tell  the  names  of  any 
trees  they  may  know.  Require  a  reason.  If  they  do  not 
know  the  name,  draw  out  the  peculiarities  and  then  tell  it. 
Encourage  the  gathering  of  fruits,  leaves,  bark,  buds,  or  any- 
thing by  which  the  tree  could  be  identified,  and  save  for  a 
collection  or  review. 

In  Illustration.— Time,  a  day  in  September.  Children, 
instead  of  a  game  of  ball  to-day  let  us  at  recess  see  what 
trees  there  are  about  the  school  yard.  What  tree  is  this  ? 
"An  elm."  Yes.  How  do  you  know  an  elm?  "I  heard  a 
man  say  it  was  an  elm."  We  will  improve  on  that.  Look 
at  the  bark;  how  is  it?  "Gray."  u  Furrowed."  How 
about  the  branches  ?  "Big  ones."  "Lots  of  little  twigs." 
"  The  ends  spread  out  and  hang  over."  First  rate  for  begin- 
ners! Now  look  at  the  leaves.  "Saw-edged."  "  Pointed." 
"  One-sided."  "  Rough,"  etc. 

What  tree  is  this  next  one — an  elm  ?  (Maple.)  "  Oh, 
no,  its  leaves  are  different."  How?  "Broader,  and  with 
lobes."  Any  other  difference  ?  "  The  bark  is  not  so  much 
furrowed. "  "  The  branches  are  stiffer. "  "  The  top  is  rounder 
and  not  so  spreading."  It  is  the  sugar  maple.  Do  any  of 
you  remember  the  fruit  ?  "  Here  is  some. "  "  It  spins  round 


158  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

and  round  when  it  falls."  Yes,  we  call  the  thin  leaflike 
projection  a  wing. 

I  am  going  to  gather  some  of  these  curious  winged  fruits 
and  a  leaf  for  my  collection.  Who  wants  to  do  the  same  ? 

Our  time  is  upl  How  many  trees  have  we  learned? 
(Two.)  To-morrow  we  will  learn  some  more. 

3.  In  some  such  way  as  the  above — a  way  which  will  he 
peculiar  to  each  teacher — continue  the  work  till  40  to  50  of 
the  trees  are  well  known  and  can  be  described  from  memory 
by  the  children. 

Review. — Have  pupils  bring  leaves,  fruits,  buds,  bark,  or 
anything  characteristic,  and  let  the  school  tell  what  it  came 
from. 

Another  method  can  be  made  a  game.  Take  turns  in 
describing  trees,  and  the  rest  guess  what  is  thought  of. 

A  third  way  is  to  take  turns  in  telling  the  one  or  very 
fewest  things  by  which  a  tree  can  be  distinguished. 

With  a  warning  that  the  following  is  in  no  wise  to  be 
used  without  verification  (as  there  are  exceptions)  and  never 
taught,  I  will  give  some  of  the  points  I  have  found  useful 
to  me,  arranging  the  trees  in  nearly  their  botanical  rank,  be- 
ginning with  the  highest. 

I  shall  give  the  most  distinctive  point  first,  and  suppose 
the  place  and  time  to  be  latitude  42°  in  eastern  United 
States,  and  in  September. 

1.  Tulip  tree:  Square-ended  leaves  and  smooth,  columnar 
trunk. 

2.  Linden :  Winged  fruit  stalk ;  one-sided  leaves ;  tough 
inner  bark. 

3.  Sumac:    Blunt  branches    and   sunken   buds;    com- 
pound leaves,  bright-colored  in  fall. 

4.  Red  maple :  Clustered  and  reddish  buds ;  flowers  and 
young  fruit  before  the  lobed  leaves  come. 

5.  Sugar  maple :  Late  hanging  fruit ;  round  head ;  lobed 
leaves. 

6.  Ash-leaved  maple:   Trifoliate    leaves  and  maplelike 
fruit. 


STEP  XII.— PLANTS.  159 

7.  Horse-chestnut:   Fruit  and  leaves;  gummy  buds  in 
pairs. 

8.  Common  locust:  Compound  leaves  with  thorny  stip- 
ules; fruit. 

9.  Honey  locust:   Branched  thorns;  compound  leaves; 
huge,  curled  pods. 

10.  Crab  apple:  Beautiful  blossoms;   green,  sour  fruit; 
low-headed  tree. 

11.  Mountain  ash:    Red    or   orange   clusters  of   fruit; 
compound  leaves. 

12.  Pear:  Fruit;  pyramid  form  and  glossy  leaves. 

13.  Apple  (cultivated  ) :  Fruit ;  low  head  and  leaves. 

14.  Plum:  Fruit;  stone  flattened ;  crooked  branches. 

15.  Cherry:  Fruit;  stone  round ;  bark. 

16.  Peach:  Fruit;  stone  furrowed ;  leaves. 

17.  Sweet    gum:    Clustered   fruits;    maplelike    leaves, 
bright  in  fall. 

18.  Persimmon :  Fruit  and  leaves. 

19.  Catalpa.  Pencil-like  fruit;  broad  leaves  (opposite  or 
in  threes). 

20.  Ash :  Winged  fruits ;  compound  leaves  opposite. 

21.  Sassafras:  Peculiar  lobed  leaves ;  spicy  bark. 

22.  White  elm:  Spreading  top ;  smooth  buds;  one-sided, 
serrate  leaves. 

23.  Red  elm:  Red,  hairy  buds;  larger  leaves  and  fruit; 
"  slippery  "  inner  bark. 

24.  Osage  orange:  Fruit;  thorns;   glossy  leaves;  milky 
juice  and  orange-colored  roots. 

25.  Button  wood :  base  of  huge  leaf  stalks  covering  the 
buds;  balls;  bark. 

26.  Black  walnut:  Round  fruit;  compound  leaves. 

27.  Butternut:  Oblong,  sticky  fruit;  compound,  sticky 
leaves. 

28.  Shagbark  hickory:    Fruit,  and  five    leaflets;  scaly 
bark. 

29.  Pignut   hickory:    Thin-shelled,  bitter   fruit;  seven 
leaflets. 


160  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

30.  Red  oak:  Saucerlike  cup  and  large  acorn;   smooth 
stripes  on  bark. 

31.  Black  oak:   Toplike  cup  and  small    acorn;    black 
bark  in  knobs. 

32.  White  oak:    Long  acorn  in  handsome  cup;  bark 
scaly;  leaves  with  rounded  lobes. 

33.  Burr    oak:    Fringed  cup;    sweet  acorn;    furrowed 
bark ;  end  lobe  of  leaf  largest. 

34.  Swamp  white  oak :  Acorns  in  pairs  on  a  long  stem ; 
scaly  bark  curls. 

35.  Chestnut:  Fruit;  leaf. 

36.  Beech:  Fruit;  leaf. 

37.  Hop    hornbeam:     Hoplike    fruit   cluster;    elmlike 
leaves. 

38.  Iron  wood :  Lobed  scales  to  fruit  cluster. 

39.  White   birch:   Bark;    catkinlike  clusters  of    small 
winged  fruits. 

40.  Sweet  birch :  Cherrylike,  spicy  bark. 

41.  Golden  willow:  Yellow  bark;  one  scale  over  bud; 
narrow  leaves. 

42.  White  willow:  Gray  bark;  one  bud  scale;  narrow 
leaves. 

43.  Silver-leaf  poplar:  Leaves  green  above  and  silvery 
below ;  several  bud  scales. 

44.  Aspen:  Whitish  bark;  thin,  rounded  leaves  on  flat- 
tened stems. 

45.  Cotton  wood :  Broad  leaf,  angled  twigs. 

46.  Lombardy    poplar:    Spiry    form;     small    diamond- 
shaped  leaf. 

47.  White  pine :  Five  needles  in  a  bundle ;  scales  of  cone 
thickened  at  tip. 

48.  Scotch  pine:  Two  bluish-green,  short  needles  in  a 
bundle. 

49.  Austrian  pine:  Two  long,  dark-green  needles  in  a 
bundle. 

50.  Fir:   Erect  cones;  flat,  spreading  needles  scattered 
singly. 


STEP  XII.— PLANTS.  161 

51.  Norway    spruce:    Large  hanging    cones;    scattered 
needles,  point  all  ways. 

52.  Hemlock :  Small,  hanging  cones ;  flat  spray ;  needles 
in  two  rows. 

53.  Larch :  Many  needles  in  a  cluster ;  fall  off  each  year ; 
erect  cones. 

54.  Bed  cedar:  Bluish  berries;  sharp,  prickly  spray. 

55.  Arbor  vitae:   Flat  branches;  cones  few  scaled,  and 
only  two  seeds  under  each. 

56.  White  cedar :  Cones  roundish,  and  with  four  to  eight 
seeds  under  each. 

An  examination  of  this  list  will  show  how  it  re-enforces 
and  in  many  ways  fills  out  and  extends  the  work  before 
done  on  buds,  stems,  and  leaves. 

Autumn  colors  will  come  up  under  this  head,  and  an  in- 
teresting and  instructive  exercise  will  be  the  comparing  of 
these  colors  with  the  color  chart  and  placing  the  names  of 
the  trees  on  the  board,  each  in  the  proper  color. 

When  this  table  is  completed  it  will  be  helpful  to  trace 
the  colors  certain  trees — maples,  sumac,  poplar,  gum,  etc. — 
pass  through  from  the  green  of  summer  to  the  brown  of 
winter. 

Collections  of  fruits,  leaves,  and  buds  can  be  made  which 
are  very  interesting,  and  it  should  be  a  matter  of  pride  to 
each  succeeding  class  to  add  to  the  school  collection.  In 
making  this  collection,  and  in  the  study  of  trees,  the  subject 
of  barks  and  woods  will  come  up,  and  should  now  be  taken, 
as  given  in  Step  XIII. 


13 


STEP  XIII.— PLANTS. 
WOODS  AND  BARKS. 

Object. — To  continue  the  work  of  the  previous  step.  To 
learn  different  woods  at  sight. 

Time  of  the  year — October,  or  following  Step  XII.  Some 
of  it  will  be  out-of-door  work ;  but  much  can  be  done  in  the 
schoolroom.  About  15  lessons  of  15  to  20  minutes  each. 

Material — The  great  thing  is  to  have  it  well  seasoned. 
Green  woods  crack  and  curl  so  in  drying  as  to  be  very  dis- 
couraging. Round  sticks,  with  the  bark  on,  2  to  3  inches  in 
diameter,  are  best.  Search  for  native  woods  in  piles  and 
brush  heaps.  If  green,  put  them  up  in  some  loft  or  over  a 
furnace  to  season.  Always  have  the  name  plainly  written 
on  one  end  of  the  stick — by  preference  the  upper,  as  it  then 
indicates  not  only  the  kind  of  wood,  but  which  end  grew 
uppermost.  In  cutting  down  a  small  tree  to  get  a  stick, 
always  mark  the  north  side,  as  there  is  often  a  difference  in 
the  growth  on  sides  toward  or  away  from  the  sun ;  also,  if 
a  limb,  mark  the  upper  side. 

Lumber  yards,  cabinet  makers,  and  dealers  in  material 
for  scroll  sawing,  veneers,  and  parquetry  floors  can  furnish 
the  common  woods  used  in  house  construction  and  furnish- 
ing.* Would  advise  applying  to  the  nearest  worker  in 
woods.  Tell  him  just  what  you  want  and  what  it  is  for,  and 
you  will  be  surprised  to  find  how  kindly  all  feel  toward  any 

*  Charles  W.  Spurr,  of  35  Bedford  Street,  Boston,  will  send  "  24  varieties 
of  natural  woods  "  for  10  cents,  and  John  Wilkinson  Co.,  of  Chicago,  will 
send  20  samples  of  scroll-sawing  woods  for  30  cents,  which  could  be  cut  up 
for  sorting,  etc.  Many  other  dealers  will  probably  do  the  same. 

(162) 


STEP  XIII.— PLANTS. 


163 


project  to  help  the  children.     Discard  from  purchase  all 
fancy  and  dyed  woods,  except  for  mere  sorting. 

How  to  prepare  the  Specimens.— Having  procured  the 
material  (with  the  hark  on,  if  possible),  cut  across  the  grain, 
with  a  sharp  saw,  into 
pieces  1J  to  2  inches 
long.  Then,  standing 
these  pieces  on  end 
upon  some  firm  block 
of  wood,  take  a  broad 
chisel,  sharp  hatchet, 
or  strong  knife,  and 
split  off  a  slice  of  wood 
and  bark,  £  to  $  of  its 
diameter,  from  two  op- 
posite sides,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1.  Then  split 
the  remainder  in  two 
along  the  line  BC.  We 
shall  now  have  a  com- 
paratively small  specimen,  showing  good  -  sized  surfaces, 
of— 

1.  The  bark. 

2.  The  tangential  section  (flat  side  of  ring). 

3.  The  radial  section  (through  center), 

4.  The  cross  section  (end,  with  its  bark,  sapwood,  heart- 
wood,  and  pith). 

Each  section  of  the  round  stick  will  thus  make  two  speci- 
mens. Provide  enough  of  each  wood  for  the  whole  class 
and  label  on  one  end.  These  can  be  left  rough  or  sand- 
papered smooth,  and  oiled  or  varnished  with  white  varnish, 
which  will  not  change  the  color  of  the  wood. 

At  the  druggist's  can  be  had  a  few  woods  and  barks  not 
included  in  the  above,  such  as  chips  of  Brazil,  logwood,  and 
quassia ;  the  barks  of  slippery  elm,  cinchona,  sassafras,  and 
cinnamon ;  also  tan  bark  (oak  or  hemlock)  and  cork. 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher.— This  will  mainly  consist  in 


164  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

getting  the  material  together  and  practicing  with  named 
specimens  till  they  can  he  recognized  at  sight. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  points  the  pupils  will 
notice : 

Bark:  surface;  thickness;  color  of ;  outer  or  inner ;  taste; 
tough  or  brittle. 

Wood:  color  of;  sap  wood  or  heartwood;  coarse  or  fine 
grained;  soft  or  hard;  light  or  heavy;  rings  of  growth; 
age ;  medullary  rays  (u  silver  grain  ") ;  smell  and  taste. 

Pith :  where ;  much  or  little ;  color. 

The  Lessons. — As  in  trees,  so  here  the  name  is  an  important 
factor,  and  the  work  must  differ  somewhat  from  much  of 
that  which  precedes. 

1.  Give  the  trays  used  for  seeds  (Step  I),  etc.,  and  collect 
and  distribute  as  there  suggested. 

2.  Give  a  couple  of  easily  distinguished  woods,  and  while 
discussing  learn  the  names. 

3.  Give  two  or  three  easily  known  woods  and  learn 
about  them. 

4.  Review  the  names  of  those    given  and  add  more, 
gradually    giving   those    which    resemble    the    ones   first 
given. 

5.  When  all  the  woods  and  barks  have  been  examined, 
let  the  class  bring  wooden  articles  and  name  the  wood. 
Samples  could  be  loaned  to  enable  the  child  to  identify  fur- 
niture, etc.,  at  home. 

6.  Encourage  the  gathering  of  private  collections  by  the 
offer  of  a  rare  wood  to  any  one  who  will  bring  a  certain 
number  (say  15)  of  correctly  labeled  specimens  ;  two  rare 
woods  for  20,  and  so  on. 

Sorting. — Where  native  woods  can  not  be  had  or  the 
pupils  are  small,  profitable  lessons  might  be  had  by  simply 
giving  handfuls  of  the  thin  mixed  pieces  from  the  stores  to 
sort  (and  let  the  names  go). 

Matching  might  be  made  a  helpful  exercise  by  placing 
named  woods  where  the  children  could  bring  clothespins, 
shoe  pegs,  pencils,  butter  plates,  baskets,  fruit  crates,  barrel 


STEP  XIII.— PLANTS.  165 

staves,  box  boards,  pieces  of  molding,  kindling,  etc.,  to  com- 
pare and  name. 

In  sloyd  and  manual  training  classes  much  beautiful  and 
interesting  work  might  be  done  by  the  use  of  a  variety  of 
woods  for  inlaid  work,  and  for  the  various  articles  made; 
also  in  the  neat  cutting  and  surfacing  of  cabinet  sets  of 
specimens,  which  could  show  each  wood  under  different 
modes  of  filling  and  finishing. 

Material  put  away. — Use  boxes  which  can  be  placed  on 
the  shelves  of  the  storeroom  or  closet,  and  whose  labels  will 
enable  anything  wanted  to  be  at  once  found.  Scented  woods 
— camphor  wood,  sandalwood,  and  those  having  taste  should 
be  kept  in  separate  and  tight  boxes.  Woods  at  all  green  or 
wet  had  better  be  hung  up  in  bags  or  open  baskets  where 
they  can  dry  without  molding  or  discoloration. 

The  next  step  in  Plant  work  will  be  XVII — Flowers. 


STEP  XIV.— ROCKS. 
SORTING  OF  BOOKS. 

The  child  has  made  the  acquaintance  of  Metals  (III)  and 
Minerals  (VIII). 

This  step  is  to  let  him  see  the  rocks  which  result  from 
the  mixing  of  minerals,  and  which  differ  in  the  following 
respects : 

1.  Rocks  are  like  nut  candy  or  fruit  cake  (fragments 
differ)  rather  than  sugar  or  hread. 

2.  While  they  contain  crystals,  they  do  not,  as  a  whole, 
crystallize. 

3.  While  minerals  are  usually  in  small  masses  or  scat- 
tered crystals,  rocks  form  great  layers  of  the  earth's  crust 
or  whole  mountains. 

Material. — Go  to  the  quarry  or  stone  yard  for  all  you  can 
find,  and  huy  the  rest  (see  Step  VIII).  As  far  as  possible, 
have  the  pieces  about  i  to  1  inch  square  and  thin  (flakes 
rather  than  chunks).  This  will  save  weight,  and  at  the  same 
time  show  the  structure.  Get  the  following  as  indicated : 

1.  Pumice  (at  store). 

2.  Cellular  lava  or  slag. 

3.  Obsidian  (or  glassy  slag  at  iron  furnace). 

4.  Amygdaloid. 

5.  Slate  (roofing). 

6.  Red  sandstone  (at  stone  yard). 

7.  White  sandstone  (at  stone  yard). 

8.  Gray  sandstone  (at  stone  yard). 

9.  Conglomerate  (pudding  stone)  or  concrete. 

10.  Red  granite  (at  stone  yard — coarse-grained). 

11.  Gray  granite  (at  stone  yard — coarse-grained). 

(166) 


STEP  XIV.— ROCKS.  167 

12.  Porphyry  (of  any  kind). 

13.  Gneiss  (let  pieces  show  the  bedding). 

14.  Mica  schist  and  other  schists  (at  stone  yard). 

15.  Limestone  (with  fossils  in  it). 

16.  White  marhle. 

17.  Shell  marble. 

18.  Hard  coal. 

Add  any  minerals  from  VIII  which  the  children  can  dis- 
tinguish in  the  above  rocks,  as  mica  (19),  feldspar  (20), 
quartz  (21),  etc. 

Other  rocks  can  be  substituted  if  they  illustrate  the  four 
classes  represented  by  1-4  (volcanic),  5-9  (sedimentary), 
10-14  (metamorphic),  and  15-18  (organically  formed). 

Preparation  of  Teacher.— Your  specimens  before  you, 
examine  the  rocks  in  order,  with  no  aid  but  such  as  the 
children  will  have  (eyes  and  specimens) ;  try  to  see  what 
they  will  and  no  more. 

As  I  write  these  suggestions  I  fully  realize  the  struggle  it 
will  cost  you  to  keep  silent  about  all  the  interesting  things 
there  are  to  be  told,  but  that  word  "  told  "  lets  out  the  whole 
mischief — the  class  is  not  ready  for  it.  If  you  will  look  at 
the  other  lessons  to  follow  you  will  find  how  all  will  come 
in  at  the  proper  time ;  and  before  giving  any  of  this  work, 
I  would  advise  that  the  whole  course  be  examined. 

Two  things  more  are  needed.  With  a  punch  such  as  is 
used  to  make  holes  in  leather,  about  i  to  ^  inch  in  diameter, 
cut  from  thin  "  folding  "  or  other  paper  some  little  disks  for 
labels,  and  do  up  in  packages  of  30  or  40. 

For  a  cement,  the  following  receipt  by  Prof.  Winchell  (in 
his  Excursions)  is  much  better  than  mucilage.  For  a  class, 
take  of  . 

Gum  arabic  .        .        .        .       .        .       .       .    4  oz. 

Fine  starch 3  oz. 

White  sugar 1  oz. 

Mix  and  pulverize  in  some  way,  put  in  a  deep  tin  dish,  and 
add  4  times  its  bulk  of  water.     After  standing  till  the  gum 


168  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

is  dissolved,  suspend  in  a  dish  of  hot  water  to  cook  till  clear 
and  as  thick  as  molasses.  A  lump  of  camphor  or  20  cloves 
cooked  in  it  will  prevent  souring  and  mold. 

Keep  in  a  fruit  jar,  to  use  as  required.  Small  clam  shells 
or  squares  of  glass  make  good  dishes  for  the  class,  and 
wooden  toothpicks  instead  of  brushes. 

With  the  help  of  the  children  count  exactly  30  pieces  of 
each  specimen  into  boxes  or  pieces  of  paper,  and  into  each  of 
the  30  shallow  trays  used  for  minerals  place  little  boxes 
enough  for  the  number  of  specimens  you  have  (say  21). 

The  Lessons. — A.  Number  the  specimens.  Give  a  pack- 
age of  30  specimens,  as  many  little  labels,  and  a  dish  of  ce- 
ment to  each  child,  for  a  lesson  in  the  numbering  of  min- 
erals. 

1.  Place  the  specimens  in  rows  before  you,  the  poorest 
side  up  (so  that  when  arranged  the  numbers  will  be  out  of 
sight). 

2.  On  each  place  a  little  cement,  choosing  hollows  to 
put  it  in. 

3.  Wet  the  end  of  a  toothpick  or  pencil,  and  pick  up  one 
little  disk  of  paper  after  another  and  lightly  place  it  on  the 
cement. 

4.  With  a  handkerchief  or  cloth  firmly  press  each  label 
on  to  its  specimen. 

5.  Put  the  specimens  carefully  away  to  dry,  and  the  next 
day,  with  a  pen,  place  a  neat  a  1 "  on  all  the  pumice,  u  2  "  on 
the  obsidian,  and  so  to  the  21st. 

B.  Give  out  the  trays  with  the  empty  boxes,  and  have 
the  children  put  the  boxes  in  order. 

(Let  the  teacher  or  a  quick  pupil  take  the  boxes  of  any 
absentees  and  arrange  as  the  class  does.) 

C.  Give  out  specimens.     There  are,  for  example,  30  trays 
of  boxes  in  position  on  the  seats.     Take  30  specimens  of 
No.  1  (pumice),  and  as  you  pass  up  one  aisle  and  down  the 
next  drop  a  piece  in  each  upper  left-hand  box.    That  you 
have  no  specimens  left  as  you  leave  the  last  box  is  proof 
that  each  child  has  one. 


STEP  XIV.— ROCKS.  169 

Call  the  attention  of  the  class  to  what  you  have  done  and 
how,  and  then  let  a  pupil  take  No.  2  (obsidian)  and  place  it 
in  the  box  to  the  right  of  the  pumice. 

When  sure  he  understands,  give  No.  3  to  a  second  child 
to  follow  after  the  first,  and  so  on  until  all  are  given  out. 

D.  Let  each  child's  tray  have  his  name  in  some  easily 
seen  place,  and  gather  them  up  in  such  orderly  way  as  to  be 
easily  returned  to  each  at  the  next  lesson. 

E.  With  the  numbered  specimens  before  each  child  have 
a  talk  about  what  they  observe.     I  should  try  in  the  end  to 
have  had  the  following  things  noticed : 

1.  Light  and  white. 

2.  Full  of  holes. 

3.  Glassy  and  with  sharp  edges. 

4.  With  roundish  spots  or  holes. 

5.  Splits  in  thin,  even  layers ;  smells  of  clay. 

6.  Reddish ;  made  of  different  colored  sand  grains. 

7.  Gray ;  made  of  different  colored  sand  grains. 

8.  White ;  made  of  different  colored  sand  grains. 

9.  Pebbles  stuck  together. 

10.  Reddish ;   made  of  glassy  specks  (what  mineral  ?) ; 
pink  pieces  with  smooth  faces  (what  mineral  ?) ;  and  scales 
of  shining  mica,  such  as  we  have  in  our  stoves. 

11.  Whitish ;  otherwise  the  same. 

12.  Sharp-cornered  specks  scattered  over  it. 

13.  Much  like  10,  but  shows  lines  of  bedding;  very  likely 
has  little  red  (garnet)  or  other  colored  specks  in  it. 

14.  Very  shiny,  with  much  mica  (No.  19)  and  some  glassy 
specks  (21) ;  is  also  apt  to  have  other  minerals  in  it. 

15.  Grayish,  with  shells  (or  crinoid  stems)  stuck  in  it. 

16.  White,  and  sparkles  in  sun  like  loaf  sugar. 

17.  Shells,  etc.,  in  it;  sparkles  like  16. 

18.  Black  and  shining;  surface  in  hills  and  hollows. 
That  most  of  them  are  made  of  several  minerals  put  to- 
gether. 

That  none  are  in  crystal  form. 

That  many  are  used  for  buildings,  streets,  sidewalks,  etc. 


170  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Review. — A.  Question  (see  B  in  Minerals). 

B.  Each  child  tell  how  he  would  know  any  particular 
specimen  (as  mica  schist,  white  sandstone,  etc.). 

C.  Now  provide  a  pail  of  water  and  let  each  child  put  in 
his  specimens  (to  soak  off  labels  and  freshen),  when  they  can 
see  that  pumice  floats  and  the  others  sink.     After  school  let 
some  of  the  children  take  them  out,  rub  off  the  labels  still 
adhering,  and  place  on  boards  to  dry. 

Place  the  mixed  specimens  about  the  room  and  let  each 
child  select  2  new  sets  (as  in  Minerals). 

D.  Put  specimens  away  (see  Minerals). 
Next  step  see  Pebbles— XV. 


STEP  XV.— MINERALS. 
PEBBLES. 

So  far*  the  child  has  simply  observed  a  typical  set  of 
metals,  minerals,  and  rocks. 

He  is  now  ready  to  examine  more  closely  and  see  things 
in  relation  to  other  things. 

As  introductory  to  this  the  Pehhle  is  well  fitted. 

Objects  in  View.  —  An  introduction  to  the  forces  of 
Nature.  Advance  in  the  art  of  experiment.  Preparation 
for  what  follows — i.  e.,  to  connect  with  Sharp  Stones  (Step 
XX).  Preparation  of  "  Earth  Food,"  Morning-glory  (Step 
XXIII).  Preparation  of  Soil  for  Roots  (Step  XXVIII). 
Making  and  Sorting  of  Sediments  (Step  XLIII).  Correct 
idea  for  Geography ;  of  Earth  Sculpture,  etc. 

Time. — 25  to  30  lessons  of  15  minutes  each  will  he  ample. 

Material  needed.— For  a  class  of  30:  30  rounded  pebbles, 
of  varying  size,  color,  shape,  and  structure ;  30  angular  frag- 
ments of  sandstone  (mortar,  tile,  or  brick  will  do);  a  mercu- 
rial barometer;  2  thermometers  which  read  alike;  2  stout 
bottles  (quart  or  more)  with  corks — pickle-bottles  have  proved 
best,  being  strong  and  wide-mouthed ;  a  tin  or  other  basin ; 
a  100  cubic  centimetre  graduated  cylinder ;  a  porcelain  evapo- 
rating dish  (8  oz.)  or  bright  tin  dish ;  an  alcohol  lamp  (4  oz.) ; 
a  large  funnel  (8  oz.);  and  filter  papers  (25). 

If  these  things  can  not  be  had,  substitute  a  tall,  wide- 
mouthed  bottle  of  clear  glass ;  a  tin  evaporating  dish ;  make 
the  alcohol  lamp  (see  Step  XXV) ;  a  tin  funnel,  with  thin 
wad  of  cotton  in  tube. 

*  Steps  III  and  VIII. 

071) 


172  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Where  to  get. — Order  of  some  dealer  in  chemical  appa- 
ratus, or  your  druggist  will  get  them. 

Preparation  of  Teacher.— When  your  things  are  gath- 
ered, read  the  chapters  on  erosion  and  the  work  of  moving 
water  in  some  good  geology. 

Specimens  in  hand,  go  through  the  following  suggestions, 
trying  all  the  experiments  and  making  the  subject  your 
own. 

Then  wrap  the  rounded  pebbles  up  in  paper,  doing  it  in 
the  proper  way  (a  lesson  to  the  class),  as  follows : 

Tear  a  newspaper  into  oblongs  (each  leaf  into  4).  Lay 
the  pile  before  you  on  the  table,  the  length  from  front  to 
back. 

Place  a  pebble  in  the  middle  of  the  nearest  half  of  the 
sheet. 

Fold  the  nearest  end  over  the  pebble. 

Fold  the  left  side  on  to  the  right. 

Fold  the  right  side  to  the  left. 

Eoll  from  you  to  the  end  of  the  paper. 

Give  the  corners  a  squeeze. 

A  mineral,  rock,  fossil,  or  shell  done  up  in  this  way  is 
protected  from  injury  in  the  best  possible  way,  although  of 
course  delicate  specimens  must  not  be  placed  under  heavy 
ones. 

The  Lessons. — Give  each  child  a  pebble  wrapped  in  paper 
so  that  he  can  get  it  into  his  hand  without  seeing  it.  What 
can  you  tell  about  this  by — 

1.  Feeling*    Heavy,  hard,  cold,  rounded,  smooth,  size, 
dry. 

2.  What  more  can  we  learn  without  looking  ? 

Smell  ?  (None !)  Breathe  on  it  ?  (Clay  smell  perhaps.) 

3.  What  more  without  looking  ? 

Hear*  Listen.   (Nothing!)  Speak  to  it.   (No  answer.) 

4.  What  else  without  looking  ? 
Taste  f    (None.) 

6.  Now  look  and  see  what  you  can  tell. 

Color,  form,  structure  (of  grains  or  layers,  etc.). 


STEP   XV.— MINERALS.  173 

6.  Where  are  rounded  pebbles  found  ? 
Seashore. 

Lake  shore. 
Brooks. 
Elvers. 
Gravel  pits. 
Tops  of  houses. 
Walks,  etc. 
By  waterfalls. 

7.  Let  us  now  see  how  these  pebbles  got  round. 

(Give  some  angular  pieces — size  of  hickory  nut — of  sand- 
stone or  hard  mortar.) 

In  what  respect  are  these  like  the  pebble  ? 

How  do  they  differ  ? 

Now  drop  the  angular  pieces  into  strong  pickle  or  other 
bottle  and  set  aside. 

8.  Take  the  class,  if  possible,  to  some  sea  or  lake  beach 
or  to  some  brook  to  observe. 

Do  not  tell  them,  but  by  questions  or  example  lead  them 
to  note  the  motion  of  the  water,  the  rubbing  of  the  stones,  etc. 

If  this  is  impossible,  by  picture  and  description  give 
them  as  good  an  idea  of  ocean  waves  and  beaches,  rapid 
brooks,  and  dashing  waterfalls,  as  you  can. 

9.  Now  talk  about  the  most  familiar  place  the  pebbles 
are  found  (say  the  lake  beach)  and  ask — 

How  does  the  lake  make  round  pebbles  ? 

(Record  an  expression  from  each  on  the  board.) 
Then  by  vote  or  criticism  narrow  the  list  down  to  those 
statements  which  wholly  or  in  part  express  the  thought 
that— 

"  The  lake  makes  round  pebbles  by  the  waves  pushing 
them  up  and  down  the  beach,  so  rubbing  them 
against  each  other." 

10.  How  can  we  prove  this  ? 

Get  them  to  suggest  "by  putting  water  in  the  bottle  with 
the  sharp  stones  and  shaking  it.1' 


174  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

What  is  the  proper  motion  to  give  the  bottle  ? 

(Backward  and  forward.) 

How  shall  we  hold  it  ? 

(Slightly  inclined  like  the  sloping  shore.) 

Now  let  all  have  a  turn,  at  recess  or  after  school,  in  giving 
the  stones  at  least  an  hour's  vigorous  shaking  ;  turn  water 
and  all  into  a  basin,  stir  violently,  and  put  in  a  still  place 
till  next  lesson.  Then  let  class  examine  without  disturb- 
ing, and  question  as  to  what  they  see.  (Worn  pebbles  at 
the  bottom;  sand  and  mud  on  and  among  them;  bottle 
scratched,  etc.)  Now  strain  through  a  fine  cloth,  rebottle 
water  for  future  use,  and,  after  drying,  give  a  pebble  and 
some  wearings  to  each. 

Have  we  shown  how  lakes  do  the  rounding  ? 

Are  the  stones  as  heavy  as  before  ?    As  large  ? 

Why  lighter  and  smaller  ? 

What  do  we  call  the  wearings  ?    (Sand.) 

Which  settled  quickest  ?    (Pebbles.) 

How  do  you  know  ?    (Sand  and  mud  on  top.) 

What  is  mud  ?  (Wet  dust.)  Dusty  roads,  marble  making, 
etc. 

Where  did  the  mud  come  from  ? 

11.  Would  the  chipped-off  sand  grains  be  rounded  or 
sharp  ? 

Examine  under  a  magnifying  glass. 

Why  are  they  sharp  ? 

If  these  were  rolled  or  bumped  by  water  what  would 
happen  ?  What  would  be  size  of  wearings  ? 

What  would  you  call  these  ?    (Mud.) 

Can  you  see  the  grains  of  mud  ? 

Do  you  think  they  could  wear  ? 

What  would  be  the  size  of  these  wearings  ? 

If  so  very  small,  do  you  think  it  possible  for  them  to  be 
in  clear  water  ? 

Let  us  see  how  we  can  prove  this. 

On  washing  day  the  wet  clothes  are  hung  on  the  line,  and 
after  a  while  are  ?  (Dry.) 


STEP  XV.— MINERALS.  175 

What  is  left  hanging  on  the  line  ?    (Clothes.) 

What  has  gone  away  ?    (Water.) 

Where  has  the  water  gone  ?    (Into  the  air.) 

Here  is  a  bottle  of  water.  In  it  I  drop  a  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  and  now  shake  it.  What  has  happened  ?  (Salt  has 
gone.)  Where  ?  (Into  the  water.)  Yes — there  are  reasons 
for  thinking  there  are  very  small  crevices  in  water,  just  as 
there  are  between  the  apples  in  a  barrel  or  the  shot  in  this 
bottle,  into  which  the  salt  has  gone ;  only  they  are  so  very, 
very  small  no  one  has  ever  seen  them,  not  even  with  the 
strongest  magnifier. 

What  must  be  the  size  of  the  pieces  of  salt  ?  ( Very  small.) 
Are  they  still  salt  f  (Taste  and  see.)  Yes— still  salt,  and  we 
call  such  tiny  parts  of  anything  molecules.  Try  and  remem- 
ber it.  Why  can  not  we  see  these  molecules  ?  (Too  small.) 
How  can  I  get  the  salt  back  ?  (Boil  away  the  water.)  Let 
us  put  it  in  this  dish  and  leave  on  the  stove  (register,  etc.) 
till  the  water  dries  up,  and  see  if  the  salt  is  left. 

(When  ready,  show  to  the  class.) 

Was  the  salt  left  ?  I  put  in  a  teaspoonful.  Let  me  scrape 
this  together  and  measure.  See — there  is  none  lost ! 

Hold  up  the  bottle  of  water  from  the  shaken  stones  and 
ask :  u  Who  can  now  tell  me  how  to  find  whether  very  small 
pieces  of  wearings  can  be  in  clear  water  ? " 

Yes,  "dry  away  the  water."  I  will  fill  this  evaporating 
dish  and  let  the  water  dry  away  over  this  (lamp,  stove,  regis- 
ter, or  any  heat). 

Were  any  in  clear  water  ?    (Yes.) 

How  large  are  the  pieces  ?    (Very,  very,  VERY  small !) 

(Look  in  your  mother's  tea-kettle  and  see  if  you  find  any 
brownish  "  scale  "  on  the  sides,  and  bring  some.) 

12.  Where  else  did  we  find  pebbles  ? 

"Ocean  beach." 

What  kind  of  motion  does  the  ocean  have  ? 

(Same  as  lake.) 

How  does  it  wear  the  pebbles  ?    (Review  lakes.) 

What  makes  the  waves  move  ?    (Wind.) 


176  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Yes,  you  can  make  some  little  waves  by  blowing  on 
still  water.  Try  it  in  a  tub  or  washbowl,  and  see.  Show 
map  of  world,  and  talk  of  the  great  extent  of  ocean  beach, 
along  most  of  which  pebbles  are  being  rolled  and  rubbed. 

13.  Are  all  rounded  stones  made  so  by  lake  or  ocean  ? 
(Brooks  and  rivers.) 

Is  the  motion  the  same  as  the  lake  ?  (No,  it  is  onward, 
not  up  and  back.) 

Try  and  illustrate  this  by  taking  pupils  to  some  brook  or 
river.  Even  the  little  rills  from  melting  snow,  gullies  in 
walks  from  rain,  or  a  crooked  little  channel  in  some  bank, 
made  by  the  pupils  and  water  poured  in  at  the  top  end,  will 
throw  much  light  on  this  subject. 

14.  What  makes  the  rivers  and  brooks  run  ? 

Talk  of  how  heavy  water  is,  getting  all  the  examples  the 
children  can  give  to  prove  it.  (Pails,  tubs,  bowls,  wet 
clothing,  etc.) 

Here  is  a  glass  bowl.  Is  there  anything  in  it  ?  "  Empty," 
is  it  ?  Is  this  room  u  empty  "  ?  Move  a  fan  and  see.  (Air.) 
Is  the  bowl  "empty"  ?  "No;  has  air  in  it."  Let  us  see  if 
it  is  full,  in  every  crack  and  corner,  with  air. 

We  will  take  this  bottle.  Is  it  empty  ?  (Air.)  I  will 
wrap  this  wet  rag  about  the  neck  of  this  funnel,  fit  it 
tightly  in  the  neck,  and  pour  in  water.  It  does  not  run 
in!  Why?  (Already  full  of  air.)  Can  air  and  water  be 
in  the  same  place  at  the  same  time  ?  (No.)  I  lift  the  fun- 
nel a  little  and  in  rushes  the  water.  Why  ?  (Because  the 
air  could  get  out.) 

Now  for  our  bowl  again.  I  will  lay  these  pieces  of  rock 
in  a  pile  on  the  bottom. 

What  happened  to  the  air  when  I  put  the  stones  in  t 
(Some  had  to  get  out.) 

Do  the  stones  fill  the  bowl  as  the  air  did  ?  (No;  they 
stay  in  a  pile.) 

We  will  take  out  the  stones  and  pour  in  some  water. 
Does  it  pile  up  like  the  stones  ?  Does  it  fill  every  part,  as  the 
air  ?  (No ;  it  sinks  to  the  bottom,  as  low  down  as  it  can  get.) 


STEP  XV.— MINERALS.  177 

We  will  set  the  bowl  in  this  pan  and  imagine  it  a  pretty  lake 
up  among  the  mountains.  This  water  I  pour  in  is  a  water- 
fall from  the  melting  snow.  See  how  our  lake  fills  up. 
Does  the  water  keep  trying  to  get  as  low  as  it  can  ?  Now  it 
is  full  and  runs  over.  So  it  always  does,  and  our  brooks  and 
rivers,  waterfalls  and  rapids,  are  all  water  " spilling  over" 
and  trying  to  get  as  low  as  it  can. 

15.  To  give  correct  ideas  of  things  seen  on  a  map — 

A.  Hang  up  a  map  of  the  township  or  county  the  children 
live  in.    Find  the  little  dot  which  represents  their  own  town, 
and,  by  talking  of  the  streets,  houses,  etc.,  transfer  the  con- 
ception of  home  surroundings  to  that  black  dot. 

B.  Get  a  "  bird's-eye  view  "  of  some  near  city,  and  repeat 
the  above.* 

C.  In  the  same  way  talk  of  the  blue  representation  of  the 
nearest  lake  or  ocean. 

D.  Talk  of  the  rain — how  it  runs  off  in  little  rills  (too 
small  to  be  on  the  map) ;  these  gather  into  brooks  (show,  if 
possible) ;  brooks  empty  into  rivers  (find  nearest). 

E.  Now  hang  up  a  map  of  the  world,  and  by  it  place  a 
globe. 

Explain  how  inconvenient  globes  are  to  keep  on  account 
of  the  room  they  require,  and  that  a  map  is  the  same  as 
though  the  outside  of  a  globe  were  peeled  off  (show  orange), 
and,  after  some  fixing  to  make  the  pieces  meet,t  it  were 
pressed  out  flat . 

F.  On  the  big  map  find  the  locality  of  the  places  talked 
of  in  A  to  Z>,  and  then  follow  the  largest  river  of  D  along 
to  the  sea  or  ocean. 

O.  Observe  how  much  ocean  there  is,  and  trace  rivers  in 
other  parts  of  the  world. 

16.  Whence  and  how  the  Bain  comes.— Hold  a  good-sized 
sponge  before  the  class.    There  is  one  thing  I  want  you  to 

*  Barnes's  Geography  (Illinois  edition)  has  an  excellent  one  of  Chicago, 
which  I  have  used. 

t  The  expanded  arctic  regions  on  common  maps  will  be  explained 
by  this. 

14 


178  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

see  about  this  sponge.  (Full  of  holes.)  (Squeeze  it  as 
hard  as  possible.)  Are  the  holes  now  larger,  or  smaller  ? 
(Smaller.) 

I  will  place  it  in  this  glass  dish  of  water.  See  how  the 
water  rises  all  through  it.  I  lift  it,  and  much  water  stays 
in.  I  squeeze  it,  and  much  of  the  water  runs  out.  Why  ? 
(Holes  made  smaller.) 

Now  the  sun  warms  the  ocean  and  causes  the  water  to 
rapidly  dry  away.  Great  numbers  of  tiny  little  bits  of  water 
are  all  the  time  rising  from  its  surface  into  the  air  above  and 
mixing  with  it. 

They  are  so  very  small  that  no  eye  can  see  them,  and  the 
air  they  are  in  looks  the  same  as  in  this  room.  The  warm 
water  also  warms  the  air  above  it. 

Remember  the  hot  smoke  from  locomotives  and  chimneys, 
and  tell  me  what  hot  air  always  tries  to  do.  (Rise.)  John 
may  climb  the  stepladder  and  hold  this  thermometer  (which 
means  heat  measure)  near  the  ceiling  for  2  minutes.  Sam 
may  hold  this  one  near  the  floor  for  the  same  length  of  time. 
Now,  where  has  the  heat  u  meter  "  or  measure  shown  the 
most  heat  ?  (At  the  top  of  the  room.)  Yes.  The  vapor  of 
water  is  also  very  light — even  lighter  than  the  air — and,  as 
it  mixes  with  the  warm  air,  both  rise,  just  as  you  can  see  the 
hot  air  rise  from  a  register  or  stove  when  the  sun  shines  on 
them.  Here  is  an  instrument  we  have  to  tell  us  when  the 
air  is  light  or  heavy.  It  is  called  a  barometer,  which  means 
weight  measure.  Before  I  tell  you  about  it,  let  me  show  you 
a  few  experiments.  Here  is  a  bent  glass  tube,  open  at  both 
ends.  I  pour  in  some  of  this  colored  water,  so  that  you  can 
see  the  level  in  both  tubes.  How  are  they  now  ?  (The  same 
in  both.)  What  unseen  thing  is  pressing  on  the  water  in 
each  arm  ?  (Air.)  Yes.  Air  has  weight.  Suppose  the  air 
should  press  hardest  on  one  surface.  (The  other  would  rise.) 
See  if  it  does  so  when  I  blow  into  one.  (Yes.)  If  the  air 
were  made  lighter  on  one  side  ?  (The  other  would  fall.) 
Let  me  suck  out  some  air  and  you  will  see.  (Yes.)  Suppose 
there  were  no  air  on  one  side  ?  (Would  rise  higher.)  Yes, 


STEP  XV.— MINERALS.  179 

so  high  as  to  be  very  inconvenient.  So  in  the  barometer  we 
use  a  heavy  liquid  called  mercury.  Our  barometer  is  a  bent 
glass  tube,  closed  tightly  at  the  upper  end.  This  tube  is  then 
filled  with  mercury,  so  as  to  get  every  bit  of  air  out,  and, 
when  ready,  placed  in  this  position  in  a  frame.  As  the  mer- 
cury falls  in  this  long  arm,  what  is  left  above  it  ?  (Nothing 
— only  an  empty  space  called  a  vacuum;  for  the  closed  top 
would  not  let  the  air  flow  in  after  the  mercury.) 

Now  let  us  see  what  we  have.  What  presses  on  the  mer- 
cury in  the  open  arm  ?  (The  air.)  What  in  the  closed  arm  ? 
(Nothing.) 

You  see,  then,  it  is  like  a  scale — the  air  on  one  side  bal- 
ances the  mercury  on  the  other ;  and  if  the  air  grows  heavier 
at  any  time,  the  mercury — ?  (Rises.)  If  the  air  becomes 
lighter — ?  (Mercury  falls.) 

When  the  air  above  the  oceans  becomes  light  from  heat 
it  will  rise.  Do  you  think  it  leaves  a  hole  behind  ?  How  is 
it  with  the  furnace  ?  (Cold  air  goes  in  at  the  bottom  as  hot 
goes  out  at  the  top.)  Where  is  the  hot  air  in  this  room  ? 
(At  the  top.)  I  will  open  the  window  a  little  at  both  top 
and  bottom,  and  having  lighted  this  candle,  hold  it  near  the 
top.  Which  way  is  the  flame  blown  ?  (Out.)  Now  see, 
when  I  hold  it  near  the  bottom.  (In.)  Just  so  the  cool 
air  below  flows  in  to  take  the  place  of  the  rising  vapor  and 
warm  air. 

One  thing  more :  Look  at  this  picture  of  a  high  mountain 
in  the  tropics,  as  we  call  that  part  of  the  earth  where  the  sun 
shines  almost  straight  down.  (Guyot's  Physical  Geography 
has  a  good  one  on  page  102.)  Talk  about  it,  and  lead  them 
to  notice  from  the  vegetation  and  snowy  top  how  it  grows 
colder  as  you  ascend. 

As  the  warm  air  rises  higher  and  higher  what  will  hap- 
pen to  it  ?  (Cool.)  And  when  cool  it  will  begin  to —  ? 
(Fall.)  Can  it  fall  straight  back?  (No;  the  rising  air  be- 
hind will  make  it  spread  out  like  a  tree  top,  and  it  will  fall 
to  both  sides.)  Let  us  represent  this  on  the  board.  (See 
diagram  in  any  physical  geography.) 


180  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

What  do  we  call  the  flowing  air  about  our  feet,  through 
a  door  or  window  ?  (Draught.)  Never  sit  where  you  feel 
one ;  they  are  very  dangerous  to  health.  Who  can  tell 
what  we  call  the  great  currents  of  air  out  of  doors  ?  Yes, 
winds.  And  what  is  it  starts  all  these  winds  ?  (Sun.)  And 
what  do  they  carry  ?  (Vapor  of  water.)  Do  you  see  any 
vapor  in  this  room  ?  (No.)  Here  is  a  glass,  clean  and  dry. 
I  pour  in  some  ice  water.  See  the  outside ;  it  grows  dim  and 
moist.  John,  come  and  look  at  it  through  this  magnifier. 
(Little  drops  of  water.) 

Breathe  on  this  cold  looking-glass.  (Drops  of  moisture 
again.)  Now,  warm  air  is  like  the  unsqueezed  sponge;  it 
has  plenty  of  room  in  it  for  vapor  of  water,  but  when  cooled 
it  is  like  squeezing  the  sponge.  What  happens  ?  (Water 
has  to  get  out.) 

The  air  in  this  room  and  my  breath  are  like  which  sponge  ? 
(Unsqueezed.)  But  when  either  comes  against  the  cool  glass  ? 
(Cooled,  and  has  to  leave  some  water.) 

Why  can  you  see  the  water  on  the  glass  and  not  in  the 
air  ?  (Some  of  the  tiny  bits  of  vapor  have  run  together  till 
large  enough  to  be  seen.)  When  the  air  comes  against  cool 
things  out  of  doors  and  leaves  moisture  on  a  summer's  night, 
you  call  it —  ?  (Dew.)  If  this  dew  freezes,  as  in  spring  and 
fall—?  (Frost.) 

When  you  breathe  out  on  a  cold  day  what  do  you  see  ? 
(Little  cloud.)  What,  then,  is  a  cloud  in  the  sky  ?  (Vapor 
turning  back  to  water. )  Suppose  a  cloud  rested  on  the  ground, 
what  would  you  call  it  ?  (Fog  or  mist.)  If  air  laden  with 
vapor  gets  cooled,  we  see  first—  ?  (Cloud,  fog,  or  mist.)  If 
cooled  more —  ?  (Little  bits  of  vapor  keep  getting  together 
till  too  heavy  to  float,  and  then  fall  as  rain  or  snow.)  Just 
back  to  where  we  started ! 

Now  have  a  careful  review. 

Brooks  and  rivers  run  to  the  ocean. 

Warmed  water  rises  in  vapor,  and,  mixing  with  warmed 
air,  both  rise. 

Cool  air  flows  in  to  take  its  place. 


STEP  XV.— MINERALS.  181 

As  the  mixture  of  vapor  and  air  rises  it  cools,  and,  flowing 
both  ways,  begins  to  fall. 

Cooling  more,  forms  cloud,  and  from  the  cloud  comes  rain 
or  snow. 

These  currents  of  air  are  winds,  etc. 

17.  We  now  know  more  about  the  water  that  makes 
brooks  and  rivers. 

Let  me  read  you  a  poem  about  a  brook.  (Read  Tenny- 
son's The  Brook,  or  Southey's  Cataract  of  Lodore.)  As  the 
brook  and  river  run  on,  what  happens  to  the  stones  in 
them? 

A  man  in  a  crowd  tries  to  run,  or  suddenly  stops ;  you  try 
to  run  among  desks  or  chairs;  what  happens  ?  (Collisions 
and  bruises.) 

How  with  a  stone  in  a  swift  brook  ? 

What  about  the  brook  or  river  will  make  it  move  faster 
or  slower  ?  (Put  answers  on  board.) 

Bank,  bed,  straightness  of  channel,  depth  of  water — 
take  these  up  and  discuss  in  detail. 

Banks.    What  are  they  f    How  named  ? 

Which  is  right  ?    Left  ?    What  made  of  ? 

(Smooth  stone,  rough  stone,  sand,  or  mud.) 

Bed.    Level.     Fall  and  rapids. 

How  will  a  fall  act  ?  (Whirlpool,  stones  round  and 
round;  illustrate  with  a  basin  and  pebbles.) 

Do  they  wear  only  themselves  ?    (Potholes.) 

How  does  a  rapid  differ  from  a  fall  ? 

How  will  it  act  on  pebbles  ?    Why  fast  f 

Is  there  anything  besides  the  slope  of  the  bed  which 
makes  a  stream  run  fast  or  slow  ?  (Windings.) 

How  do  they  check  the  current  ? 

Why  would  it  be  very  hard  to  navigate  straight  rivers  ? 

Depth.  Talk  of  the  varying  effects  of  deep  water  or 
shallow,  spring  freshets  and  summer  drought. 

18.  Does  all  water  wear  stones  ?    Why  do  we  see  boats 
going  out  where  the  water  is  deep  to  pump  up  sand,  when  it 
lies  in  heaps  on  the  shore  ? 


182  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Talk  of  the  "  clean,  sharp  sand "  required  by  architects, 
and  how  mortar  for  plaster  is  made  by  pouring  water 
(3  parts)  on  burned  limestone  (1  part),  mixing  sand  (3  parts) 
and  hair  with  it,  and  letting  it  lie  a  few  days  before  using. 
Tell  how  the  lime  dissolves  some  of  the  sand  and  makes  a 
strong  cement  to  bind  all  into  a  hard  mass.  Which  will  be 
best  for  the  lime  to  work  on — sharp-cornered  or  rounded 
sand  ?  (Sharp.)  Why  ?  (More  surface  for  lime  to  act  on.) 
Now  answer  my  question  about  "  pumped  lake  sand  "  being 
the  best.  Why  sharper  ?  (Waves  could  not  roll  and  wear 
it  as  on  the  beach.) 

19.  Is  this  wearing  confined  to  the  pebbles  and  sand  ? 
At  a  waterfall  the  stones  on  the  bottom  wore  each  other, 
and  what  else  ?  (The  bed  was  hollowed  out  into  a  pothole.) 

If  water  runs  down  a  bank  of  sand  or  earth,  what  change  ? 
(Gully.) 

How  is  the  gully  made  ?    (Water  washes  away  the  earth.) 

What  does  it  do  with  it  ?  (Spreads  it  out  on  the  first  level 
place.) 

Between  the  gullies  what  are  left  ?    (Ridges.) 

Suppose  the  bank  were  rocAr,  how  could  it  be  cut  away  ? 
(By  the  stones  and  sand  in  the  water  being  dragged  over  it.) 

Do  you  know  any  such  places  ?  * 

What  will  hecome  of  the  cut-away  rock  ?  (Settle  in  the 
lakes,  etc.) 

When  the  brooks  and  rivers  have  cut  into  or  across  the 
sides  of  mountain  ranges,  what  will  be  left  ?  (Peaks  and 
ridges.) 

Where  the  water  has  run  will  be—  ?    (Deep  ravines.) 

Where  the  wearings  have  filled  up  lakes  or  gentle  slopes 
of  the  river  valley  will  be —  ?  (Plains.) 

Which  would  you  choose  for  a  farm  ? 

Are  farms  mostly  in  the  valleys  and  on  plains  ? 

Where  would  boats  have  to  stop  in  going  up  a  stream  ? 
(Falls.) 

*  Teacher  show  pictures  of  the  Colorado  canons,  etc. 


STEP  XV.— MINERALS.  183 

Where  would  be  a  good  place  to  put  water  wheels  and 
build  factories  ? 

Notice  in  your  geography  and  reading  if  manufacturing 
and  important  cities  are  apt  to  be  where  the  ships  have  to 
stop. 

Thus,  falling  water  not  only  rounds  the  pebbles  and  sand, 
but  in  dragging  them  along  the  bottoms  of  brooks  and  rivers 
also  carves  the  face  of  the  earth  into  mountains  and  valleys, 
makes  good,  level  land,  and  turns  the  machinery  of  mills. 

Does  all  water  wear  stones  ?    (Only  moving  water.) 

20.  What  do  we  call  rounded  pebbles  ?    (Gravel.) 
Still  finer  grains  easily  seen  ?    (Sand.) 

When  too  fine  to  see  ?    (Mud,  clay,  dust.) 

When  black  in  color  ?    (Earth  or  loam.) 

See  who  can  bring  me  some  of  each  to-morrow. 

21.  What  now  have  we  learned  from  a  rounded  peb- 
ble ? 

"  Made  from  sharp  stones  by  being  rubbed  against  other 
stones  by  moving  water;  making  gravel,  sand,  mud,  and 
some  wearings  so  very  fine  as  to  be  held  in  solution  in  water 
without  affecting  its  clearness." 

That,  the  largest  pieces  settle  first. 

The  kinds  of  banks  and  bed  a  river  can  have,  and  what 
they  are  called. 

That  the  crookedness  checks  the  current  and  allows  boats 
to  go  up  stream. 

That  when  we  want  to  find  out  about  something  we  re- 
member all  we  have  seen,  think  about  it,  and  try  experi- 
ments. 

That  even  a  pebble  or  a  grain  of  sand  can  be  a  pleasant 
friend  if  we  only  get  acquainted. 

Do  you  like  science  ? 

22.  Give  the  children  a  talk,  clearly  reviewing  the  points 
made  in  a  connected  way. 

23.  Examine  in  some  such  way  as  this : 

a.  Beginning  with  A,  each  child  may  tell  me  one  thing 
we  have  talked  about. 


184:  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

b.  To-morrow  you  may  each  bring  something  we  have 
talked  of  and  tell  me  about  it. 

c.  Who  will  help  me  make  a  collection  for  the  school  ? 
(Arrange  and  label  neatly.) 

Collection  to  illustrate: 
"  Bound  pebbles." 
6  sharp  pieces  of  different  things. 
6  rounded  pieces  of  different  things. 
Bottle  of  gravel. 
Bottle  of  sand. 
Bottle  of  clay. 
Bottle  of  "earth  food." 

Time  required — 25  to  30  lessons  of  20  minutes  each. 
As  I  review  these  lessons  critically  as  to  their  adaptation 
to  ordinary  eight-year-old  children,  I  can  see  no  steps  too 
long.  I  have  tried  to  bring  in  nothing  which  was  not  in- 
timately connected  with  the  subject  of  pebbles,  and  so  have 
left  out  many  things  to  be  taken  up  in  other  connections. 

Hence  I  would  strongly  advise  the  teacher  to  take  up  the 
work  just  as  given  here,  pushing  it  along  energetically  to  a 
close,  trusting  to  the  review  and  future  applications  which  I 
have  in  mind  (see  Objects  in  View  at  beginning)  to  set  errors 
right  and  explain  misunderstandings.  Energetic  work  will 
require  the  time  given  and  be  much  more  satisfactory  than 
one  half  more  time  spent  in  dallying. 

As  to  the  results  of  such  a  series  of  lessons,  I  think  they 
can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
Next  step,  XX— Sharp  Stones. 


STEP  XVI.— THE  SKIES.    (III.  THE  EARTH.) 

A  continuation  and  application  of  Steps  II  and  VII,  where 
the  way  was  prepared  for  correct  ideas  of  the  shape,  motions, 
and  position  of  the  earth. 

The  time  needed  for  these  lessons  will  he  about  20  lessons 
of  10  to  15  minutes  each,  at  such  part  of  the  school  year  as 
may  seem  best  fitted.  For  the  constellations,  if  the  story  of 
Hercules  is  followed  out,  some  must  be  seen  in  April,  and 
then  on  to  May  and  June. 

Material  needed.— A  globe,  8  to  12  inches  in  diameter, 
such  as  is  common  in  schools. 

A  second  small  globe  (mine  is  of  paper),  3  or  4  inches  in 
diameter,  to  suspend  by  a  piece  of  twine. 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher.— Read  the  previous  steps, 
and  then,  in  Lockyer's  Astronomy,  or  elsewhere,  about  the 
earth,  trying  the  experiments  and  illustrations  here  given 
till  they  are  familiar,  or  devising  new  methods,  if  better 
suited  to  the  case. 

THE  LESSONS  ON  THE  EARTH. 

Its  Shape.— (See  Lockyer's  Astronomy,  page  82,  and 
Primer,  page  4,  etc.) 

1.  Tell  the  story  of  Magellan,  and  on  a  globe  trace  his 
voyage  of  circumnavigation.    Sew  map  and  route. 

2.  Speak  of  the  horizon,  always  appears  to  be  round  on 
the  sea  or  on  a  level  plain.    Take  a  pair  of  dividers  and 
apply  them  to  a  globe  and  then  to  other  "round"  objects. 
The  sphere  alone  will  be  touched  in  all  directions  by  the 
moving  point  of  the  divider  at  an  equal  distance  from  the 

(185) 


186  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

stationary  foot.     The  same  thing  can  be  shown  with  a  round 
apple  and  a  carrot,  by  cutting  off  slices. 

3.  Illustrate  on  a  globe  the  disappearance  of  ships  at  sea. 
A  hill  crossed  from  opposite  directions  by  the  pupils  will 
also  show  this.     Especially  impress  the  fact  that  the  masts 
of  a  ship  or  flagpole  on  a  building  are  much  the  smallest 
and  still  seen  farthest.     (Sew  or  draw  circle.) 

4.  The  Shadow  of  the  Earth.— The  shadow  of  the  moon 
was  observed  in  the  experiments  on  its  motion.     Does  the 
moon  ever  get  between  the  earth  and  sun  ?    (Yes.)    What 
will  happen  ?    (Shadow  fall  on  the  earth.)    What  shape  will 
the  round  moon  always  appear  against  the  bright  sun  ? 
(Round.) 

Now  suppose  the  earth  got  between  the  sun  and  moon  ? 
(Would  cast  its  shadow  on  the  moon.)  What  do  we  call  such 
occurrences,  when  either  moon  or  earth  get  in  the  other's 
light  ?  (Eclipses.)  Who  has  ever  seen  one  ?  Tell  us  about 
it.  Read  to  the  class  or  tell  the  story  of  some  eclipse.* 

Consult  almanacs  (with  the  class),  and  by  no  means  miss 
seeing  the  first  eclipse  that  occurs,  having  colored  or  smoked 
glass  ready  to  protect  the  eyes,  if  of  the  sun.  (Sew  or 
draw  it.) 

5.  The  class  will  now  be  able  to  give  reasons  for  calling 
the  earth  "  round,"  and  thus  review  the  points  made. 

Daily  Motion.— (See  Primer,  10-18.) 

What  do  we  mean  by  morning  ?  Noon  ?  Night  ?  Sun- 
rise ?  Sunset  ?  Do  the  shadows  remain  in  the  same  place 
hour  after  hour  ? 

We  know  the  moon  goes  around  us.  Are  we — is  our 
earth — still,  or  moving  f 

The  poets  in  olden  times  had  queer  notions,t  as  they 

*  Whittier's  Abraham  Davenport  is  a  noble  poem  about  an  eclipse.  A 
book  entitled  The  Chinese  Slave  Girl  has  a  vivid  account  of  the  Chinese 
ideas  and  their  efforts  to  drive  away  the  monster  that  is  eating  up  the  sun. 
Lockyer's  Astronomy  (p.  133)  has  items  of  interest. 

t  See  Bulfinch's  Age  of  Fable  (E.  E.  Kale's  edition),  pp.  3,  4,  and  49, 
Phaeton. 


STEP  XVI.— THE  SKIES.  187 

seem  to  us.  To  them  a  flat,  circular  earth  was  surrounded 
by  the  river  Ocean.  The  Dawn,  Sun,  and  Moon  arose  out 
of  the  eastern  Ocean  and  drove  through  the  air,  giving  light 
to  gods  and  men.  Phoebus  daily  issued  from  his  gorgeous 
temple  in  the  east  and  drove  the  Chariot  of  the  Sun  through 
the  heavens.  The  journey  ended,  he  returned  by  a  winged 
boat  on  the  river  Ocean,  around  the  north  side  of  the  earth, 
to  be  ready  to  start  again  the  next  morning.  The  moon  did 
the  same.  (Prick  and  sew  or  draw  one  of  those  early  maps.) 

Galileo's  story  will  tell  how  recently  (only  about  250  years) 
most  people  believed  that  the  world  stood  still  and  the  sun 
daily  went  around  her  ! 

Galileo  thought  it  was  not  so,  although  difficult  to  prove. 

Beginning  at  the  capital  (find  on  a  map)  of  our  country, 
and  measuring  west  straight  round  the  earth,  let  us  suppose 
the  distance  divided  into  24  parts  and  posts  set  as  marks 
where  the  meridians  would  run.  These  would  then  measure 
the  distance-— which  way  from  Washington  ?  (East  or  west.) 
Suppose  the  sun  had  just  risen  on  the  post  at  Washington, 
how  long  before  it  would  rise  at  the  next  post  west  ?  (1  hour.) 
And  at  the  next  ?  (Another  hour.)  If  we  knew  how  many 
of  these  meridian  posts  a  place  was  from  us,  could  we  tell 
the  time  there  ?  Give  me  some  examples. 

Counting  a  meridian  for  each  degree  we  have  360  of 
these  meridians  instead  of  24,  which  is  15  times  as  many; 
hence  each  marks  how  much  time  ?  (4  minutes.) 

Clocks  and  telling  Time.— Here  teach  the  divisions  of  a 
clock.  (Prick,  sew,  or  draw  clock  faces.) 

How  many  times  does  the  hour  hand  go  round  each  day  ? 

Teach  the  class  to  tell  time  by  the  clock  and  by  the 
shadows. 

The  Days  of  the  Week.— When  our  side  of  the  earth  is 
turned  to  the  sun  we  call  it —  ?  (Day.) 

When  away  from  the  sun —  ?     (Night.) 

When  we  have  day,  the  children  on  the  other  side  have — ? 
(Night.) 

What  children  and  people  go  to  bed  as  we  get  up  ? 


188  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Why  does  the  sun  seem  to  rise  in  the  east  and  set  in  the 
west  ?  (Earth  turns  from  west  to  east.) 

The  moon's  revolution  about  the  earth  gave  to  man- 
kind—  ?  (The  division  of  time  into  months.) 

The  earth's  revolution  on  its  axis  gives  us—  ?  (Day  and 
night.) 

How  many  days  in  a  month  ?    In  a  week  ? 

Name  the  days  of  the  week,  beginning  with  Sunday.* 

Constellations.— I  would  advise  those  connected  with  the 
story  of  Hercules.  (See  Burritt's  Geography  of  the  Heavens, 
p.  104,  or  Bulfinch's  Age  of  Fable,  p.  175,  etc.) 

1.  Find  the  polestar. 

2.  Pass  to  the  "Dipper,"  or  Great  Bear. 

3.  From  the  tail  of  the  Bear  go  to  Arcturus. 

4.  Find  the  Northern  Crown  early  some  May  evening 
(6th  to  10th). 

5.  Directly  east  of  this  lies  Hercules,  wearing  the  lion's 
skin,  and  holding  by  one  hand  the  terrible  three-headed  dog 
Cerberus,  which  he  alone  was  able  to  tame. 

6.  Having  aroused  an  interest  in  the  story  and  constel- 
lation, at  once — before  the  15th  of  May — (in  or  near  latitude 
40°),  look  in  the  southwest  for  the  Sickle.    This  is  in  the  head 
and  shoulders  of  the  Lion. 

If  the  line  from  the  polestar  to  the  two  "  pointers  "  in  the 
Dipper  be  continued  on,  it  will  pass  between  the  Sickle  and 
bright  Denebola  in  the  tail  of  the  Lion. 

Having  traced  the  Lion  (which  Hercules  slew  and  whose 
skin  he  wears),  look  still  farther  southwest  for  the  largest 
star  (Cor)  in  the  famous  Hydra  which  Hercules  destroyed. 

7.  Returning  to  Hercules,  find  the  head  of  the  Dragon — 
four  stars  forming  almost  a  square,  just  north,  between  Her- 
cules and  the  polestar. 

When  the  head  has  been  found,  the  coiled  shape  of  the 
body  and  tail  can  be  traced,  lying  around  the  Little  Bear  and 
between  that  and  the  "  Dipper."  This  is  supposed  to  repre- 

*  If  it  seems  best,  the  meaning  of  these  names  might  be  taken  up. 


STEP  XVI.— THE  SKIES.  189 

sent  the  monster  which  guarded  the  famous  "  apples  of  Hes- 
perides,"  and  had  to  be  slain  before  Hercules  could  get  the 
apples. 

These  constellations,  with  the  reading  connected,  will 
probably  be  enough.  Sew,  draw,  or  paste  these  groups  so 
that  the  pupils  can  take  them  home  to  find  again  and  interest 
the  "home  circle." 

Next  step  in  Skies— XXII,  The  Earth,  continued. 


STEP  XVII.— PLANTS. 
FLOWERS. 

Object. — Boots,  stems,  buds,  leaves,  trees,  barks,  and  woods 
bave  been  brought  before  the  pupil.  To  further  advance 
this  knowledge  of  plants  is  the  object  of  these  exercises  in 
handling,  observing,  and  gathering  flowers. 

Time. — The  flowers  of  spring  are  much  more  simple  in 
construction  and  advantageous  for  our  purpose  than  those  of 
autumn.  The  time  of  the  day  is  immaterial,  but  should  be 
when  the  school  is  in  need  of  a  little  relaxation  from  study. 
Number  of  lessons  will  be  about  25,  of  20  minutes  each. 

Material  should  be  mostly  fresh.  Have  a  tight  tin  box 
or  pail  to  lay  the  freshly  gathered  flowers  in,  and  they  will 
keep  in  good  shape  for  several  days.  Do  not  wet  them, 
but  lay  a  moist  sponge,  cloth,  or  paper  in  the  bottom.  The 
moisture  evaporating  from  the  specimens  is  retained  by  the 
tight  box,  and  the  saturated  atmosphere  soon  stops  further 
loss  from  the  flowers. 

The  most  important  thing  for  the  teacher  is  to  have  a 
definite  plan  of  work,  and  to  know  each  d&yjust  what  ma- 
terial will  be  needed  for  the  next  lesson.  The  pupils  can 
then  do  much  of  the  work  and  be  helped  by  its  doing.  The 
following  list  of  points  to  cover  and  material  to  use  has 
proved  satisfactory  with  me,  and  will  illustrate  my  idea : 

1.  Flowers  that  grow  singly :  Terminal — Tulip,  hepatica, 
anemone.     Axillary — Vinca,  marsh  marigold,  and  pansy. 

2.  Flowers  clustered:  Spring  beauty,  hyacinth,  squirrel 
corn. 

3.  On  stalks:  Tulip,  bloodroot,  violets. 

(190) 


STEP  XVH.— PLANTS.  191 

4.  No  stalks  (sessile) :  The  separate  flowers  of  many  clus- 
ters, as  clover,  etc. 

5.  Bracts :  More  or  less  leaflike  organs  on  the  peduncle, 
below  or  about  a  flower  or  cluster;  green  in  anemone,  he- 
patica,  and  dandelion ;  colored  in  Jack-in-the-pulpit,  skunk 
cabbage,  calla,  painted  cup,  hydrangea,  and  cornel. 

6.  Head :  Many  sessile  flowers  in  a  close  cluster — Clover, 
button  bush.    Often  surrounded  by  bracts,  so  as  to  seem  one 
flower — Dandelion,  sunflower,  hydrangea. 

7.  Spike:  Many  sessile  flowers  on  the  sides  of  a  rachis — 
Plantain,  mullein. 

8.  Catkin :  A  drooping  spike — Willows,  hazel,  oaks,  pop- 
lar. 

9.  Cone :  A  kind  of  spike  peculiar  to  pines,  larches,  etc. 

10.  Spadix :  A  fleshy  spike,  usually  surrounded  by  a  large 
bract,  called  a  spathe — Jack-in-the-pulpit,  calla,  etc. 

11.  Raceme :  Spikelike,  but  each  flower  has  a  stem — Hy- 
acinth, currant,  locust,  lily  of  the  valley. 

12.  Corymb :  The  lower  pedicles  elongate,  so  as  to  make 
Aflat-topped  cluster — Crab  apple,  hawthorn. 

13.  Umbel :   All  the  pedicles  of  the  flat-topped  cluster 
equal  in  length,  as  in  golden  Alexanders,  sweet  Cicely,  and 
others  of  the  carrot  family. 

Having  now  considered  the  flowers  in  their  grouping, 
next  take  the  parts  of  which  each  is  composed. 

14.  The  end  of  the  flower  stalk  is  called  the  receptacle, 
because  it  holds  the  other  parts :  Buttercup,  sunflower,  straw- 
berry, corn  (cob). 

15.  The  growing  parts  of  the  flower  are  protected  in  the 
bud  by — 

Bracts :  Hepatica,  skunk  cabbage,  and  dandelion. 
Leaves :  Bloodroot,  marsh  marigold,  May  apple. 
Scales:  Tulip  bulb,  hazel,  pine  cone. 
Calyx :  In  the  later  flowering  plants,  as  rose  and  morn- 
ing glory. 

Do  flowers  protected  by  a  stout  calyx  have  bracts,  etc.  ? 
Why  not  ? 


192  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

16.  Inside  the  protecting  calyx  or  bracts  is  the  more  deli- 
cate and  usually  colored  corolla :   Tulip,  hepatica,  vinca, 
rose. 

Can  you  find  any  green  flowers  ? 

17.  Guarded  by  the  corolla  are  the  stamens :  Tulip,  May 
apple,  rose. 

How  many  are  there  ? 

What  parts  can  you  see  ?    (Filament,  anther,  and  pollen.) 

Are  any  of  these  parts  ever  missing  ? 

18.  In  the  center  of  the  flower  and  best  protected  of  all 
is  the  pistil :  Tulip,  peony,  columbine. 

What  parts  can  you  see  in  the  pistils  of  the  apple? 
Fuchsia  ?  Pea  ?  (Stigma,  style,  ovary.) 

Which  is  absent  in  the  tulip  and  May  apple  ?    (Style.) 

What  do  you  find  inside  the  ovary?  ("Little  young 
seeds,"  called  ovules.) 

What,  now,  are  the  four  organs  of  a  flower  ?  ("  Calyx, 
corolla,  stamens,  and  pistil.") 

19.  A  flower  which  has  all  these  is  said  to  be  complete. 
Can  you  find  any  complete  flowers  ?    (Rose,  pea,  apple, 

crassula.) 

20.  If  any  of  these  4  parts  are  lacking,  it  is  called—  ? 
(Incomplete.) 

Can  you  find  some  without  a  true  calyx  ?  (Tulip,  hepatica, 
anemone.) 

Without  stamens  ?  (Part  of  the  flowers  of  willows,  ash, 
ash-leaved  maple,  hazel,  oak,  etc.) 

Without  pistils  ?  (Remainder  of  the  flowers  of  the  last 
list— willow,  ash,  etc.) 

21.  A  flower  having  both  stamens  and  pistils  is  called  per- 
fect :  Tulip,  etc. 

Can  you  find  some  imperfect  ones  ?  (Corn,  willow,  oak, 
ash,  hazel,  begonia.) 

Can  you  find  a  plant  bearing  both  kinds  of  imperfect 
flowers  ?  (Corn,  birch,  oak,  hazel,  begonia,  squash.) 

Can  you  find  plants  with  only  one  kind  of  imperfect 
flowers  ?  (Willow,  poplar,  ash.) 


STEP  XVII.— PLANTS.  193 

Can  you  find  flowers  with  neither  stamens  nor  pistils  ? 
(Hydrangea,  snowball,  and  many  double  flowers.) 

22.  Flowers  which  have  the  same  number  of  organs  of 
each  kind  are  called  symmetrical.    The  sedum  used  for  rock 
work  and  an  African  plant  (crassula)  are  perfectly  symmet- 
rical, and  the  various  kinds  of  flax  nearly  so.* 

23.  Flowers  having  more  or  less  of  one  set  of  organs  than 
another  are  unsymmetrical. 

Find  5  such.  Find  the  most  nearly  symmetrical  one 
you  can. 

What  do  you  call  a  flower  with  many  crowded  petals  ? 
(Double.)  Bring  one. 

24.  If  all  the  members  of  each  set  of  organs  are  alike  in 
shape  and  size  the  flower  is  regular :  Tulip,  hepatica,  cras- 
sula, rose,  pinks. 

25.  If  some  of  the  organs  in  a  set  differ  in  size  or  shape, 
the  flower  is  irregular :  Pea,  mustard,  violets,  orchids,  lark- 
spur, nasturtium. 

26.  The  ovary  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  flower,  and 
if  it  is  free  from  the  other  parts  and  stands  alone  it  is  supe- 
rior :  Tulip,  cherry. 

Can  you  find  some  "  superior  "  ovaries  ? 

27.  But  if  the  calyx  or  corolla  grow  to  it  and  seem  to  rise 
from  its  top,  the  ovary  is  called  inferior:  Apple,  squash, 
iris,  crocus. 

Find  some  "  inferior  "  ovaries. 

28.  When  the  ovary  is  inferior  the  other  parts  grow  to  it. 
This  growing  together  of  different  organs  is  called  adhesion  : 
Apple,  iris,  phlox. 

29.  Sometimes  organs  of  the  same  kind  grow  together, 
which  is  called  cohesion. 

Can  you  find  flowers  with  the  sepals  united  ?    (Eose,  pea.) 

*  Pressed  specimens  of  one  of  these  should  be  made  the  year  before,  as 
they  bloom  too  late  for  spring  work.    The  crassula  is  hardy  and  a  most  re- 
markable plant,  its  flowers  being  typically  complete,  perfect,  symmetrical, 
and  regular,  and  all  the  parts  free. 
15 


194: 


SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 


With  the  petals  united  ?  (Morning  glory,  phlox,  honey- 
suckle.) 

With  the  filaments  of  the  stamens  united?  (Pea  and 
hollyhock.) 

With  the  anthers  grown  in  a  ring  ?  (Sunflower,  dande- 
lion, lobelia.) 

With  the  ovaries  united  ?  (Flax,  tulip,  morning  glory, 
squash.) 

30.  When  the  organs  neither  adhere  nor  cohere  they  are 
said  to  he  free. 

Find  some  flowers  with  all  the  organs  free.  (Buttercups, 
hepatica,  columbine,  etc. ;  all  the  Ranunculus  family.) 

31.  What  colors  can  you  find  ?    (Compare  with  the  color 
chart  or  some  standard,  and  train  to  the  exact  use  of  terms.) 

32.  Count  and  see  which  color  is  most  common. 
Which  color  stands  next  in  number  ? 

33.  Write  on  the  blackboard  the  following  heading  and 
let  the  pupils  fill  it  in.    What  rule  do  you  observe  ?  * 

WHAT  COLORS  ARE  FOUND  IN  THE  SAME  KIND  OF  FLOWER  f 


Red. 

Orange  and  yellow. 

Blue  and  violet. 

White. 

Rose. 

Rose. 

(*) 

-Rose. 

Tulip. 

Tulip. 

(?) 

lulip. 

(f) 

Crocus. 

Crocus. 

Crocus. 

W 

Violet. 

Violet. 

Violet. 

Phlox. 

to 

Phlox. 

Phlox. 

Pea. 

(*) 

Pea. 

Pea. 

Geranium. 

(t) 

Geranium. 

Geranium. 

Aster. 

(?) 

Aster. 

Aster. 

Verbena. 

(I) 

Verbena. 

Verbena. 

Dahlia. 

Dahlia. 

(B 

Dahlia. 

34.  What  flowers  are  fragrant  ? 

Make  a  list,  and  see  which  color  is  most  common  with 
fragrance.    Which  color  is  next  ?  t 

*  Wood's  Botany,  p.  76.        t  Goodale's  Physiological  Botany,  p.  454. 


STEP  XVII.— PLANTS.  195 

Try  and  find  what  time  of  day  flowers  are  most  fra- 
grant. 

35.  What  time  of  the  day  do  different  flowers  open  ? 
Let  pupils  draw  a  large  clock  dial  on  the  board,  and  on 

the  circumference  write  the  names  of  flowers  opposite  the 
hour  they  opened.* 

36.  What  ]  eaves  or  flowers  have  sleep  movements  $    Let 
the  class  report,  and  place  their  observations  on  the  board. 
(White  clover,  oxalis,  lupine,  and  several  others.) 

37.  Should  time  permit  and  the  class  be  equal  to  the  task, 
would  now  develop  the  thought  that  a  flower  is  simply  a 
modified  branch,  whose  stem  (receptacle)  has  ceased  to  grow 
Jong,  and  whose  leaves  have  changed  into  calyx,  corolla, 
stamens,  and  pistils.     Let  the  class  gather  the  following 
series  of  specimens,  to  press  and  mount  on  cards,  in  the 
order  given : 

1.  Leaves  of  hepatica  and  anemone. 

2.  Bracts  of  the  same. 

3.  Green  sepals  of  moss  rose. 

4.  Colored  bracts  of  hydrangea,  cornel,  OP  painted  cup. 

5.  Petals  of  hepatica,  anemone,  and  white  water  lily. 

6.  Stamen-tipped  petals  of  water  lily  and  petal-like  sta- 
mens of  double  arbutelon. 

7.  Stamens  of  two  plants  of  (6)  and  some  snapdragon 
flowers. 

8.  Leaflike  pistils  from    double   cherry  and  flowering 
almond. 

9.  Pressed  open  pea  pods  and  ripe  seed  pods  of  columbine 
and  marsh  marigold. 

10.  Sprouting  leaf  of  bryophyllum.t 

11.  Branching  head  of  mourning  bride,  where  at  times  a 
bud  develops  from  the  receptacle  and  grows  into  a  flower 
cluster. 

*  See  Wood's  Class-Book,  pp.  75,  76,  or  Goodale's  Physiological  Botany, 
p.  412. 

t  Bastin's  College  Botany,  p.  70. 


196  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

I  have  also  observed  the  same  development  in  a  butter- 
cup (Acris)  and  Anemone  thalictroides. 

With  more  or  less  of  this  series  of  specimens  before  them, 
I  think  a  class  can  be  led  from  the  leaf  to  the  pistil,  and 
discover  for  themselves  the  relation  of  branch  and  flower. 

These  37  "points"  cover  a  great  deal  of  ground,  and 
introduce  to  the  child's  notice  many  new  ideas ;  but  the 
eye  and  hand  will  so  aid  the  mind  that  there  is  no  fear  of 
surfeit  when  taken  in  such  a  progressive  way. 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher.— This  will  mostly  consist  in 
going  through  the  above  outline,  finding  out  where  material 
can  be  had,  and  where  pictures  and  illustrations  are  to  be 
found  to  supplement  the  material.  As  the  ground  is  gone 
over,  press  examples  of  each  point,  mount  them  on  separate 
sheets  of  thin  cardboard,  and  keep  in  a  box  or  portfolio  to 
show  the  class  when  any  break  in  the  fresh  material  occurs. 

Consult  Goodale's  Physiological  Botany,  Chapters  XIII 
and  XIV,  or  some  aid  can  be  had  from  an  ordinary  Botany. 

THE  LESSONS. 

Of  these  little  more  need  be  said. 

Lesson  1  will  need  (for  each  pupil)  a  terminal  flower 
(hepatica),  an  axillary  flower  (marsh  marigold),  a  cluster 
(spring  beauty),  and  some  sessile  flowers  (clover  head). 

With  these  the  first  3  points  can  be  drawn  out  and  illus- 
trated; also  bracts  explained. 

Now  send  the  class  home  for  old  periodicals  to  press  speci- 
mens in,  and  new  examples  of  those  studied. 

Lesson  2:  Examine  what  the  pupils  have  brought,  first 
making  it  a  review.  Do  this  with  every  lesson.  Study 
bracts.  (Many  of  the  flowers  given  blossom  about  the  same 
time,  while  the  calla  and  hydrangea  are  common  as  house 
plants.  Pictures  will  also  aid.  Class  search  for  specimens.) 

Lesson  3  can  cover  the  u  head  "  and  composite  flower  of 
the  dandelion. 

Lesson  4 :  The  spike,  catkin,  cone,  and  spadix  follow  easily, 
and  can  be  taken  together.  Review  as  the  work  goes  along. 


STEP  XVII.— PLANTS.  197 

Lesson  5 :  Teach  the  raceme,  corymb,  and  umbel  together, 
and  review  all.  Introduce  the  idea  of  "  receptacle/'  and  let 
the  class  bring  examples. 

Lesson  6  :  Receptacle  discussed  and  protection  intro- 
duced. 

Lesson  7 :  With  some  complete  flower  emphasize  the  four 
organs  in  one  lesson,  omitting  all  else  in  15-18.* 

Lesson  8 :  Return  to  complete  the  study  of  "  corolla  "  and 
"stamens." 

Lesson  9  :  Finish  the  pistil  and  "completeness"  (19). 
Class  hunt  for  examples  of  19  and  20.  Begin  gathering  and 
pressing  material  for  37.  Try  and  have  it  all  placed  in  press 
at  one  time  so  that  it  will  be  ready  to  mount. 

Lesson  10 :  Fix  the  idea  of  "  complete  "  and  "  incomplete," 
and  introduce  those  of  "perfect"  and  " imperfect." 

Lesson  11 :  Review  19-21,  and  take  up  the  topic  of 
"  symmetry  "  (22  and  23). 

Lesson  12  :  Examine  what  pupils  have  brought  (as  al- 
ways), and  fix  the  idea  of  symmetry  and  introduce  that  of 
"  regularity  "  (24  and  25). 

Lesson  13 :  Complete  "  regularity,"  and  review  all  up  to  25. 

Lesson  14  :  Examine  "  superior  "  and  "  inferior  " ;  also 
"adhesion." 

Lesson  15 :  Review  terms  of  yesterday,  and  take  up  "  co- 
hesion." Class  search  for  illustrations. 

Lesson  16 :  Examine  what  the  children  have  brought  as  a 
review  of  29  and  30.  Go  on  to  colors,  first  studying  the 
color  chart  and  getting  the  class  somewhat  used  to  exact  use 
of  color  terms.  Class  bring  as  wide  a  range  of  material  as 
they  can  find. 

Lesson  17:  Continue  color. 

Lesson  18:  Continue  color,  and  introduce  lists  and  tables 
of  32  and  33.  Continue  these  till  the  end. 

Lesson  19  :  Continue  32  and  33,  and  introduce  the 
topic  of  "  fragrance  "  (34). 

*  See  "Material." 


198  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Lesson  20 :  Call  for  additions  to  32  and  33,  and  extend  the 
lists  to  "fragrance."  Introduce  35  and  36,  and  get  "clock" 
and  table  of  36  started. 

Lesson  21:  Continue  32-36  and  begin  37. 

Lesson  22 :  Complete  32-36,  and  decide  which  colors  are 
most  common  and  which  are  most  often  found  with  odor. 
Also  review  the  u  clock  "  and  plants  that "  prepare  for  bed." 

Lesson  23 :  Spend  in  developing  the  idea  of  37. 

Lesson  24 :  A  general  review.  Prepare  and  arrange  speci- 
mens and  collections  for  a  grand  exhibition.  Invite  parents 
and  friends. 

Lesson  25 :  Have  a  systematic  exhibit  of  flowers  in  pots 
or  vases,  illustrating  all  that  has  been  gone  over.  Also  an 
exhibit  of  the  pressed  specimens  of  teacher  and  pupils. 

No  "  review  "  that  can  be  devised  will  bear  comparison 
with  the  simple  u  showing  "  to  friends  the  things  they  have 
studied  about ;  and  I  will  vouch  for  very  well-pleased  parents, 
pupils,  and  teacher  after  such  an  ending  of  such  work. 

Drawing  and  Color. — Whoever  has  charge  of  this  work 
can  make  delightful  and  helpful  use  of  flowers  to  draw  and 
color  from  Nature.  I  would  suggest  that  such  work  supple- 
ment the  collection  made,  so  that  what  the  class  can  not 
obtain,  or  from  its  nature  keep,  can  be  in  the  form  of  draw- 
ings and  color  sketches.  In  my  own  work  along  this  line  I 
have  found  surprising  progress  in  the  true  delineation  of 
Nature.  No  "  artistic "  effect  ever  blinded  my  eyes  to  un- 
truthful work,  and  I  did  all  I  could  against  the  all  too  com- 
mon sacrifice  (in  art  and  poetry)  of  fact  to  fancy— a  sacri- 
fice made  all  the  more  odious  in  that  it  is  the  result  not  of 
necessity  but  of  sheer  blindness  to,  or  inexcusable  ignorance 
of,  uthe  beauty  everywhere  revealed." 

Agassiz  has  left  a  clear  statement  of  the  value  of  this 
work  in  the  saying,  "  A  lead  pencil  makes  a  good  micro- 
scope." 

Two  rules  were  all  I  could  give  my  pupils — 

1.  "Look  carefully  at  your  specimen  till  you  can  see 
just  how  it  looks  with  your  eyes  shut." 


STEP  XVII.— PLANTS.  199 

2.  "Represent  it  on  paper  as  exactly  as  possible,  drawing 
the  lines  as  they  would  appear  if  traced  on  a  clear  pane  of 
glass  placed  over  the  object.  Do  not  attempt  to  shade." 

Cards  or  small  sheets  of  good  drawing  paper  I  have  found 
more  convenient  than  books. 

Some  suggestions  may  aid  in  selecting  work  to  draw  and 
color — 

Point  5  :  Green  and  colored  bracts  (hepatica  and  poin- 
settia). 

Point  14 :  Receptacles  of  buttercup,  sunflower,  strawberry, 
and  corn  (cob). 

Point  15:  Illustrate  "  protection." 

Point  17 :  Dissected  morning  glory  to  show  corolla,  sta- 
mens, and  pistil. 

Point  20:  Incomplete  flowers  of  hazel  or  oak. 

Point  21 :  Imperfect  flowers  of  begonia  and  snowball. 

Point  22 :  Crassula — copy  if  need  be  from  Botany. 

Point  25 :  A  dissected  flower  of  mustard. 

Point  33 :  All  the  colors  found  in  one  genus  on  a  sheet  to 
compare. 

Point  36  :  Some  copies  of  illustrations — Desmodium 
gyrans,  "Venus's  flytrap,"  etc. 

Point  37 :  As  much  as  time  will  permit. 

Blue  prints  of  many  flowers  (not  too  thick  and  bulky) 
are  good.  For  directions,  see  Step  X. 

Material  put  away.— But  little  is  to  be  done,  and  that 
easily.  The  teacher  who  gives  these  lessons  will  gradually 
gather  a  store  of  indispensable  pressed  specimens,  pictures, 
etc.  I  have  one  word  of  advice :  Do  not  let  them  get  scat- 
tered. Have  an  album  or  box,  plainly  marked,  and  put 
everything  you  acquire  into  it  and  keep  it  intact. 

I  find  it  better  to  have  duplicate  collections  and  sets  of 
illustrative  material  than  to  keep  breaking  up  and  restoring. 
The  former  plan  means  u always  ready  for  use";  the  latter, 
"  Zoss,  work,  and  never  ready" 

Next  step  in  plants  is  Fruits— XVIII. 


STEP  XVIIL— PLANTS. 
FRUITS. 

Object. — The  study  of  these  was  begun  in  Step  I.  A  more 
careful  examination  is  now  in  order  because  of  the  age  and 
experience  of  the  pupils.  Fruits  also  represent  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  purpose  for  which  all  the  previously 
studied  parts  were  arranged,  and  can  now  be  studied  in  that 
light. 

Time.— Autumn  is  the  time  of  fruits,  and  so  the  time  to 
study  them.  The  time  of  the  day  is  immaterial,  although  at 
the  close  of  school  would  be  my  choice.  About  25  lessons, 
of  15  to  20  minutes  each,  will  be  needed. 

Material — This  will  consist  of  two  kinds — that  which 
will  keep  and  that  which  must  be  fresh.  Much  of  the  for- 
mer can  be  found  in  the  list  (or  bags  and  boxes)  of  Step  I. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  kinds  of  fruit  it  is  desirable 
to  bring  before  the  child,  arranged  from  the  simple  to  the 
collective : 

1.  Akene:  One  free  seed — Sunflower,  clotbur. 

2.  Caryopsis:  The  one  seed  and  its  coats  united— Corn, 
wheat,  and  all  grain. 

3.  Samara :  A  winged  akene — Maple,  elm,  ash. 

4.  Glans  (nut) :  Akenes  more  or  less  inclosed  in  an  in- 
volucre— Acorn,  hazelnut,  beechnut. 

5.  Cremocarp:    The  peculiar  double  akenes  of  the  um- 
belliferse— Sweet  Cicely,  parsnip. 

6.  Drupe:  "Stone  fruit" — Plum,  peach,  prune. 

7.  Tryma :  Outer  covering  more  woody  than  in  the  drupe, 
and  seed  cavity  partly  two-colled — Black  walnut,  hickory- 
nut 

(200) 


STEP  XVIIL— PLANTS.  201 

8.  Berry :  Several  seeds  in  a  fleshy  pulp — Grape,  tomato. 

9.  Hesperidium :  A  berry  with  a  leathery  rind — Orange, 
banana. 

10.  Pepo:  Hard-shelled  berry— Squash,  melon. 

11.  Pome :  Several  seeds  inclosed  in  cells  and  surrounded 
by  a  fleshy  calyx — Apple,  pear. 

(None  of  these  eleven  fruits  open  entirely.) 

12.  Follicle :  A  one-celled,  dry  seed  pod,  opening  on  one 
edge — Columbine,  marsh  marigold. 

13.  Legume:  A  one-celled,  dry  fruit,  opening  on  both 
edges — Pea,  bean,  peanut. 

14.  Loment:  A  legume,  breaking  into  short  joints — Sain- 
foin, desmodium. 

15.  Cochlea:    A  coiled  legume  —  Medicago    (lucern   or 
u  snails")- 

16.  Capsule:  A  several-celled  (compound)  fruit;  open- 
ing— 

a.  Through  the  partitions— Mallows,  hollyhock. 

b.  Away  from  the  partitions — Morning-glory. 

c.  By  the  walls  (valves)  splitting  in  the  middle — Iris, 

lily. 

d.  By  chinks  or  holes  (pores) — Poppy. 

e.  By  a  lid  coming   off — Plantain,  spring  beauty, 

portulaca. 
/.  By  two  long  valves  opening  from  the  bottom  up 

(silique) — Mustard,  stocks. 
g.  By  two  short  valves  opening  upward  (silicle) — 

Shepherd's  purse. 

17.  Capsule  with  seeds  on  the  valves — Violet,  iris. 

18.  Capsule  with  seeds  on  a  central  column — Pink,  prim- 
rose. 

19.  Etaerio :  Several  drupelike  pistils  united— Raspberry, 
blackberry. 

20.  Strawberry :  Many  akenes  on  a  fleshy  receptacle. 

21.  Hip :  Many  akenes  in  a  hollow  receptacle — Rose. 
Where  the  several  pistils  of  a  flower  cluster  have  united — 

22.  Sorosis:  Mulberry,  pineapple. 


202  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

23.  Synconium:    A   hollow   receptacle   holding   many 
united  akenes — Fig. 

24.  Strobile :  Scaly  dry  fruits  form  a  flower  cluster— Pine 
cone,  hop. 

Some  other  points  should  also  come  before  the  pupils  to 
prepare  for  future  steps. 

25.  Fruits  with  bright  colors — Apple,  cherry,  mountain 
ash. 

26.  Fruits  with  pleasant  taste — Peach,  plum,  etc. 

27.  Fruits  with  wings — Maple,  elm. 

28.  Fruits  with  down  (pappus)— Thistle,  dandelion. 

29.  Fruits  with  hooks  or  bristles — Clotbur,  bur  grass, 
Spanish  needles. 

30.  Fruits  which  snap  open  on  drying — Balsam,  gera- 
nium. 

Also  use  the  trays  of  Step  I  and  thirty  paper  pie-plates. 
On  each  plate  write  a  name  (akene,  etc.),  and  draw  (or  paste 
on)  pictures  illustrating  the  peculiarity  of  that  fruit  under- 
neath. 

Preparation  of  Teacher.— Take  any  good  botany  (Wood, 
Gray,  Bastin,  etc.)  and  read  the  chapters  on  fruits.  Com- 
pare the  illustrations  with  the  list  I  have  given,  and  try  to 
gather  as  many  specimens  as  possible  under  each. 

When  the  whole  ground  has  been  gone  over,  and  you 
have  seen  the  things  with  your  own  eyes — have  handled  and 
examined  each  till  its  structure  is  familiar  (the  name  is  of  no 
consequence  just  now) — you  are  ready  to  begin  with  the  class. 
This  preparation  should  be  done  in  the  summer,  as  the  time 
after  school  opens  in  September  will  all  be  needed  for  the 
work,  in  order  to  finish  before  severe  frost  destroys  some  of 
the  material  and  makes  the  work  more  difficult  for  the  pupils. 

The  Lessons. 

The  teacher  will  have  found  great  gain  from  the  gather- 
ing of  the  various  fruits,  as  suggested  in  "  Preparation,"  and, 
that  the  pupils  may  have  the  same  chance,  should  proceed  as 
follows: 


STEP  XVIII.— PLANTS.  203 

Lesson  I :  Give  a  brief  review  of  the  flower.  Then  ask : 
Who  knows  the  sunflower  ?  Who  can  bring  me  a  "  head  " 
for  to-morrow  ?  (Accept  several  offers.)  Who  can  bring  an 
ear  of  ripe  corn  ?  (Again  let  several  offer.)  Who  can  re- 
member the  ash  tree  ?  Is  the  fruit  on  it  now  ?  (Yes.)  Who 
will  bring  me  enough  ash  fruits  for  all  ?  Who  can  bring 
me  enough  hazelnuts  in  the  husk  for  all  ?  Show  some  of 
the  largest  cremocarps  to  be  found  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
ask  to  have  some  like  those  brought.  So  go  on  till  every 
child  has  something  to  bring  on  the  morrow,  and  put  the 
list  on  the  board.  Provide  anything  the  class  can  not  get. 

Lesson  II :  Have  some  of  the  trays  of  Step  I  ready,  and, 
as  the  children  bring  the  things  in  the  morning,  let  them  be 
placed  each  by  itself  in  them,  and  put  some  mark  (in  bright 
chalk)  after  the  pupil's  name  on  the  board  to  indicate  that  he 
has  done  what  he  agreed  to.  At  the  time  for  the  lesson  give 
each — 

1.  A  couple  of  sunflower  fruits.    Why  are  they  called 
u  fruits  "  ?    (One  ripe  pistil.)    Are  they  dry  fruits  ?    Do  they 
open  of  themselves  ?    How  many  seeds  in  each  ?    Is  the  seed 
loose  inside,  or  do  the  walls  adhere  ?    (Except  at  one  point.) 
Write  "  akene  "  on  the  board. 

2.  Next  give  grains  of  corn.     Do  they  open  of  them- 
selves ?    How  many  seeds  in  each  ?    (One.)    Is  the  seed 
separate  from  its  coats  ?    Write  u  caryopsis  "  on  the  board. 

3.  Give  ash  (or  maple)  fruits.    How  many  seeds  in  each  ? 
Are  they  free,  or  not  ?    (Free.)    What  is  peculiar  about  it  ? 
(Wing.)    Write  "  samara  "  in  list. 

4.  Hazelnut  in  husk  (or  acorn  in  cup).     Why  is  all  this 
a  fruit  ?    (A  ripe  pistil  and  its  adhering  bracts.)    Does  it 
open  naturally  ?    How  many  seeds  in  the  nut  ?    (One.)    Is 
it  free?    Write  "glans." 

This  will  be  enough  for  the  first  day.  Now  review  by 
having  different  pupils  tell  the  peculiarities,  and  let  the  class 
volunteer  to  bring  more  new  things  (begin  where  Lesson  I 
left  off,  and  go  on),  and  also  other  specimens  of  the  kinds 
that  have  been  studied. 


204  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Lesson  III :  Receive  the  things  in  the  morning,  as  in 
Lesson  II.  Have  the  four  illustrated  and  named  pie-plates 
corresponding  to  the  fruits  in  Lesson  II  on  the  desk,  or 
somewhere  that  the  children  can  examine  them  and  com- 
pare the  things  they  have  brought. 

At  lesson  time,  first  ask  what  each  has  brought  like  the 
things  studied  yesterday,  and  which  they  think  they  are, 
letting  them  be  placed  in  the  proper  plate  as  disposed  of. 

5.  Study  the  cremocarp.     Lead  the  pupils  to  notice  the 
peculiar  way  they  are  joined  in  pairs  ;  that  they  are  dry, 
indehiscent,  one-seeded  fruits,  like  the  akene.     Add  taste, 
for  which  they  are  noted.     Write  name  in  the  list  on  the 
board.* 

6.  Drupe.    After  studying  exterior,  open  to  see  pulp. 
Eat  pulp  for  taste,  and  then  examine  stone.    Is  it  round, 
flattened,  or  furrowed  ?    How  many  seeds  inside  ?    Are  they 
free  ?    How  does  the  seed  taste  ?  etc. 

Proceed  in  some  such  way  as  the  above  through  the  sub- 
ject, securing  the  greatest  possible  help  to  the  pupils  by 
their — 

(1)  Bringing  the  specimens. 

(2)  Examining  with  you  and  the  class. 

(3)  Searching  for  new  examples  of  each  kind  to  put  on 
the  paper  plates,  which  should  be  set  out  as  fast  as  the  fruit 
is  collected,  and  left  on  exhibition  through  the  lessons. 

Do  not  attempt  to  compare  or  generalize.  No  one  knows 
better  than  I  the  temptation  to  do  this,  but  I  also  know  that 
this  is  not  the  place  and  time  to  do  it.  If  the  pupil  can  only 
handle,  see,  and  examine  the  fruits  (each  by  itself),  a  founda- 
tion will  be  laid  of  exact  knowledge  on  which  we  can  build 
great  and  enduring  things  in  the  future. 

Reviews. — There  are  many  ways  to  review  after  the  en- 
tire list  has  been  studied,  f 

*  These  names  are  only  a  convenience  and  training  in  use  of  exact  terms. 
Do  not  require  the  pupils  to  know  them ;  only  lead  them  to  see  what  a  help 
it  is  to  have  one  word  to  include  all  that  a  long  description  could  give. 

t  See  u  Sorting,"  in  Minerals,  etc. 


STEP  XVIIL— PLANTS. 

Sorting. — 1.  Mix  all  the  specimens  on  the  plates  and  place 
in  trays  about  the  room ;  then  send  each  child  to  gather  all 
of  some  one  kind  of  fruit. 

2.  Vary  this  by  letting  one  after  another  describe  some 
fruit  from  memory ;  if  correct,  find  the  plate  or  tray  that 
has  the  corresponding  description  on  it,  and  then  gather 
the  fruits  which  should  go  on  it. 

3.  Mix  in  a  bag,  and  let  them  tell  the  fruits  by  feeling. 

4.  Place  some  of  the  strong-scented  kinds  in  cheesecloth 
bags  (being  careful  to  keep  these  bags  away  from  each  other), 
and  let  the  pupils  tell  the  fruits  by  smelling.    A  little  crush- 
ing will  often  develop  the  odor. 

5.  Cut  up  in  small,  indistinguishable  bits,  and  tell  by  taste. 

6.  Describe  from  memory,  and  let  the  class  tell  what  is 
meant. 

7.  Making  collections  is  al  ways  helpful  work.   Encourage 
it  in  some  of  the  ways  suggested  in  previous  steps. 

Drawing  and  Color  Work.— The  competent  teacher  in  this 
department  will  find  abundant  material  for  helpful  and  in- 
teresting work,  and  have  the  added  incentive  of  a  purpose 
in  its  doing.  Such  work  will  also  be  a  great  aid  in  learning 
the  structure  of  the  fruits. 

See  suggestions  under  Flowers  (Step  XVII). 

Geography  Work—Especially  in  cities,  many  foreign 
fruits  will  be  brought.  If  little  drawings  of  these  are  made 
by  the  children  and  colored,  they  can  then  be  cut  out  and 
pinned  on  the  map  wherever  they  grow,  and  much  true 
geography  be  taught. 

Let  the  pupils  find  the  fruits  in  the  plates  and  charts  of 
Guyot's  Physical  Geography,  or  one  like  it,  and  then  find 
the  places  on  the  map.  Such  work  can  be  varied  in  many 
ways,  and  is  always  enjoyed  by  the  pupils,  and  is  really  the 
means  of  much  exact  study. 

Fruit  Festival,—4'  Harvest  home,"  or  some  celebration  of 
the  kind,  would  delight  all,  and  is  one  of  the  ways  in  which 
country  children  can  enjoy  themselves  and  make  the  very 
important  "home  connection." 


206  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Even  in  cities  much  could  be  done  in  the  way  of  deco- 
rating the  room  in  connection  with  readings  and  recita- 
tions. 

Language  Lessons  and  Literature.— The  relation  of  sci- 
ence to  these  branches  of  work  is  already  understood. 

With  their  little  heads  full  of  observations  and  questions 
on  interesting  topics,  only  their  expression  will  need  direc- 
tion. 

Material  put  away,— The  advice  in  Step  I  is  all  that  is 
needed ;  only  see  that  everything  is  ready  for  use  again  be- 
fore it  is  put  away. 

The  next  step  in  plants  is  The  Morning-Glory— XXIII. 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS. 
THE  BOY. 

Object.— In  Steps  V,  IX,  and  XI  a  general  survey  of  the 
animal  kingdom  was  taken  as  regards  externals. 

The  time  has  now  come  to  consider  some  of  these  matters 
more  closely,  and  in  their  relation  to  internal  organs.  The 
thoughtful  observation  induced  by  the  previous  work  will 
have  fitted  the  pupils  for  this  advance.  As  the  ability  to 
take  care  of  one's  self  is  of  vital  importance,  I  have  always 
made  this  step  a  simple  course  in  hygiene.  There  is  no 
question  as  to  the  best  animal  for  this  work — it  is  the  boy. 

Time. — In  the  fall  of  the  year,  when  it  will  interfere  with 
no  study  requiring  fresh  material ;  of  the  day — when  re- 
laxation is  needed.  I  have  never  known  a  pupil  to  go  to 
sleep  or  be  inattentive  if  the  work  is  briskly  pushed,  as  all 
work  should  be.  About  40  lessons,  of  15  to  20  minutes  each, 
has  been  the  longest  course;  as  experience  is  gained,  this 
can  be  lessened  one  third. 

Material. — But  little  is  needed,  as  live  specimens  are  com- 
mon! 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher.— Go  through  the  lessons 
with  some  good  physiology  in  hand,  and  arrange  to  have 
some  thing  to  show  or  experiment  to  perform  each  day.  Use, 
in  what  follows,  always  means  use  to  the  boy.  For  refer- 
ence, I  should  choose  Huxley's  Elementary  Lessons  in 
Physiology  and  Martin's  Human  Body. 

The  Lessons. 

1.  Let  the  teacher  introduce  the  subject  in  a  few  words* 
and  then,  touching  the  head,  ask,  What  is  this  called  ? 


908  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

So  with  the  trunk,  arms,  and  legs.  Can  compare  them  to 
the  limhs  and  trunk  of  a  tree. 

2.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  trunk  f    Let  volunteers  draw 
on  the  board  a  front  view  (like  the  body  of  a  violin)  and  a 
cross  section  (oval).     Call  attention  to  the  grace  and  elegance 
of  the  beautiful  curves  of  an  erect  human  body,  and  speak 
of  ways  this  erect  carriage  can  be  secured— such  as  carrying 
things  on  the  head  or  walking  with  a  broomstick  across  the 
back  and  through  the  arms. 

3.  Skin.— What  is  the  whole  body  covered  with?    Its 
color  ? 

How  does  it  fit  ?    (As  though  made  for  the  body.) 
How  does  it  feel  ?    (Soft,  warm,  smooth,  thin,  etc.) 

a.  The  skin  is  double. 

Who  has  had  a  blister  ?  How  did  the  skin  under  it  look  ? 
(Eed.)  That  was  the  true  skin.  How  did  it  feel  when 
touched  ?  What  is  one  important  use  of  the  tough,  outer 
skin  ?  (To  protect  the  inner.) 

b.  The  outer  skin  continually  wears  away. 

The  tough  covering  of  the  true  skin  takes  all  the  knocks 
and  rubs.  What  must  result  ?  (Every  time  we  wash  our 
hands,  and  especially  if  we  use  soap  and  nail  brush,  some  of 
this  must  be  rubbed  off.  Notice  how  soon  a  pair  of  gloves 
made  of  tough  leather  begin  to  show  wear.) 

One  illustration  of  this  has  always  impressed  me.  When 
a  boy,  on  my  father's  farm,  we  had  a  great  deal  of  corn  to 
husk.  Dry  corn  husks  are  very  rough  and  harsh,  and  some- 
times the  men  would  wear  buckskin  gloves  to  protect  the 
hands.  These  stout  gloves  would  wear  through  on  the 
fingers  in  a  few  days'  use,  while  the  bare  fingers,  although 
they  got  very  red  and  sensitive,  could  be  used  weeks  and 
months  without  wearing  out. 

c.  Feeling  is  a  guard  against  injury. 

When  we  came  home  after  a  day's  husking  we  could 
hardly  handle  the  silver  spoon  in  our  hot  coffee  or  take  up  a 
hot  biscuit,  so  sensitive  was  the  worn  skin.  We  might 
burn  or  cut  ourselves  very  severely  if  it  were  not  for  feeling. 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  209 

Stick  two  pins  in  a  cork  or  piece  of  thick  paper  so  as  to 
have  the  heads  one  eighth  of  an  inch  apart,  and  then,  closing 
the  eyes,  let  some  companion  test  the  exposed  parts  of  the 
body  (back  of  hand,  finger  tips,  face,  lips,  tongue,  and  cheeks), 
now  touching  with  one  and  again  with  both  pin  heads,  to 
find  where  feeling  is  most  sensitive,  and  where  you  can 
distinguish  between  one  and  two  points. 

d.  Oil  glands  to  keep  the  skin  soft. 

Take  a  slip  of  paper  the  size  of  the  finger,  and  rub  the 
middle  on  the  sides  of  the  nose.  Then  begin  at  one  end  and 
write  across  it  to  observe  the  difference  in  the  way  the  ink 
flows.  Why  does  it  flow  less  readily  where  the  paper  was 
rubbed  ?  (Oily.)  Did  you  ever  think  why,  in  writing,  it  is 
well  to  have  another  sheet  of  paper  or  a  blotter  under  the 
fingers  ?  Why  will  not  an  old  blotter  take  up  the  ink 
readily  ?  (Oily  from  much  handling.) 

e.  Chapped  Skin. — If  you  should  dip  your  hand  in  oil 
and  then  in  water,  what  would  the  oil  do  ?    (Separate,  and 
rise  to  the  top.) 

Just  so  if  our  hands  are  much  in  water :  the  oil  leaves 
them,  and  when  dry  the  skin  is  apt  to  crack — sometimes  so 
deeply  as  to  bleed.  How  can  we  cure  this  ?  (Bub  on  glyc- 
erin or  mutton  tallow,  or  better,  cocoanut-oil  soap,  to  take 
the  place  of  the  lost  oil.)  What  time  of  the  day  is  it  best  to 
do  this  ?  (At  night.)  Why  ?  (The  least  danger  of  hands 
being  used  again  before  they  heal.) 

4.  Hair.— What  grows  from  the  skin  ? 

Where  is  it  not  found  ?  (Palms  of  hands,  soles  of  feet, 
lips,  etc.) 

What  color  ?    (Varies.) 

What  shape  ?  (Develop  the  idea  of  cylindrical.  Straight 
or  curly;  long  or  short.) 

Use  ?    (To  protect  exposed  parts  and  for  beauty.) 

Care  of  the  hair?     (Comb  and  brush  frequently  and 
rapidly;  this  warms  it  by  friction  and  brings  out  the  oil, 
which  makes  it  glossy.    Do  not  wet  it  often,  or  the  oil  and 
gloss  will  be  lost.) 
16 


210  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

5.  Nails. — Where  are  the  nails  located  ?    (On  upper  side 
of  finger  and  toe  tips.) 

Their  color  ?    (The  pink  is  due  to  the  red  skin  below.) 

Their  shape  ?  (Curved  sheets  with  rounded  ends.)  Let 
the  class  (volunteers  always)  draw  the  shape  of  a  finger  nail 
in  as  many  ways  as  they  can. 

Can  we  move  our  nails  like  a  cat  ? 

Use  ?  (To  stiffen  the  ends  of  the  fingers  and  enable  us  to 
pick  up  small  things,  etc.)  What  can  you  see  on  the  nail  ? 
(Parallel  lines.) 

Do  these  suggest  anything  the  nail  may  be  considered  as 
made  of  ?  (Parallel  hairs  grown  together.) 

Care  of  the  Nails. — Scrub  them  with  soap  and  a  brush, 
keep  neatly  trimmed,  and  clean  with  a  bone  or  ivory  cleaner 
rather  than  with  a  sharp  knife.  Never  bite  them !  Well- 
kept  nails  are  a  great  addition  to  beauty. 

6.  The  Arms. — Where  are  the  shoulders  ? 

What  spring  from  them  ?    How  many  arms  have  we  ? 

Why  are  they  stiff  ?    (Bones  in  them.) 

Can  you  see  the  bones  ?  What  is  over  them  ?  (Skin  and 
flesh.) 

Where,  then,  are  the  bones  ?    (Inside  the  skin  and  flesh.) 

Are  the  bones  all  in  one  piece  ?  (Distinguish  "  fore- 
arm.") 

Can  you  bend  the  arm  ?  How  many  ways  can  the  arm 
move? 

What  do  we  call  the  places  where  this  bending  takes 
place  ?  (Joints.) 

What  do  we  call  the  joint  to  a  door  ?    (Hinge.) 

Are  there  "  hinge  "  joints  in  our  arms  ?    (Elbow.) 

Is  the  shoulder  joint  a  hinge  ?  (Show  the  class  the  hip 
joint  from  a  boiled  leg  of  mutton,  of  a  dog,  or  some  other 
animal.) 

What  name  shall  we  give  to  such  a  joint  ?  (Ball-and- 
socket.) 

What  ways  does  such  a  joint  permit  motion  ?  (Nearly 
all  ways.) 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  211 

What  joints,  then,  has  the  arm?  (Ball-and-socket  at 
shoulder  and  hinge  at  elbow.) 

And  the  forearm  ?    (Hinge  joint  at  each  end.) 
Which  way  does  the  bent  elbow  point  ?    (Backward.) 

7.  Hands. — What  do  we  call  the  ends  of  the  arms  ? 
What  is  the  general  outline  of  the  hands  ?    (Oval.) 
What  do  we  call  the  place  where  they  are  fastened  to  the 

arm  ? 

What  kind  of  a  joint  is  the  wrist  ?    (Hinge.) 

Can  the  palm  be  held  uppermost  ?  See  if  you  can  find 
how  the  bones  will  permit  this  remarkable  motion  to  be 
made. 

How  many  joints  in  the  whole  hand  ?  (14.)  What  kind 
of  joints  ? 

What  parts  to  the  hand  can  you  name  ?  (Palm,  fingers, 
and  thumb.) 

Of  what  use  are  our  hands  ?  (Take  food,  hold  things, 
etc.)* 

8.  The  Palm.— Where  is  it  ?    Shape  ?    Notice  the  lines 
crossing  it. 

Is  it  hairy  ?    Why  best  not  hairy  ? 

9.  The  Fingera— How  many  ?    (4.) 

Which  is  the  first  or  "  index  "  finger  ?    (Next  the  thumb.) 
Second?    (Middle.)    Third  or " ring "?    Fourth?    (Little.) 
Which  finger  do  you  point  with  ?    (First.) 
Which  is  the  longest?    (Middle.)    The  shortest?    (Little.) 
What  shape  are  they  ?    (Cylindrical.) 
What  do  they  spring  from  ?    (Palm.) 
How  many  joints  in  each  ?    What  kind  of  joints  ? 
What  do  they  touch  when  flexed  ?    (Palm.) 
Are  they  webbed  between  ? 
Of  what  use  are  they  ?    (To  grasp  and  hold  things.) 

*  Dwell  upon  the  wonderfully  varied  motion  and  adaptability  of  the 
human  hand.  Nothing  else  approaches  it  in  all  the  animal  kingdom,  and 
man  owes  his  advanced  state  of  civilization  largely  to  the  capacity  of  his 
hand  to  carry  out  the  bidding  of  his  brain. 


212  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

How  are  the  ends  protected  and  stiffened  ?    (By  nails.) 

10.  Thumb.  —  Where    does    the    thumb    spring    from  ? 
(Wrist.) 

How  does  it  differ  from  the  fingers  ?  (Stouter,  shorter, 
and  one  less  joint.) 

What  motions  has  it  ?    (Many.) 

Can  you  easily  touch  the  tip  of  each  finger  with  it  ? 

Because  of  this  we  are  said  to  have  an  "  opposable 
thumb." 

Of  what  use  ?  (Meets  the  fingers  in  grasping  and  hold- 
ing.) 

11.  The  Lower  Limbs.— Where  do  these  spring  from? 
(Lower  end  of  trunk.) 

What  stiffens  them  ?    (Bones.) 

Is  the  bone  in  one  piece  ?  Teach  distinction  of  "  thigh  " 
and  "  leg." 

What  kind  of  joints  has  the  thigh  ?  (Ball-and-socket  at 
hip,  and  hinge  at  knee.) 

What  joints  has  the  leg  ?    (Hinge  at  each  end.) 

Which  way  does  the  knee  point  ?  (Forward.)  And  the 
heel  ?  (Backward.) 

The  knee  is  a  very  important  joint,  and  injuries  to  it  are 
apt  to  cause  lameness,  especially  if  the  blood  is  impure. 

Of  what  use  are  the  lower  limbs  ?  (Walk,  run,  stand, 
etc.) 

12.  The  Feet.— The  leg  ends  in  the  ankle  joint.    This,  like 
the  wrist,  is  made  up  of  several  bones  firmly  bound  together 
with  gristle. 

Whenever  this  gristle,  by  a  sudden  twist  or  wrench,  is 
injured  or  torn  away  from  any  of  these  bones,  a  sprain  re- 
sults, which  is  not  only  painful  but  very  apt  to  harden  in 
healing  and  cause  a  stiff  joint.  Hence  a  "  sprain  "  should  be 
kept  quiet  and  carefully  tended.  Active  children  need  much 
courage  to  do  this. 

What  is  the  general  shape  of  the  foot  ?    (Wedge.) 

Draw  on  the  board  the  print  a  naked  foot  would  make. 

What  happens  when  a  shoe  has  a  narrow  toe  or  is  too 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  213 

short  ?  (Toes  crowded  against  each  other  and  u  corns  pro- 
duced.") 

What  sort  of  heel  should  a  shoe  have  ?  (Broad,  low,  and 
well  back.) 

What  motion  has  the  foot  ?    (Up  and  down,  mainly.) 

It  is  used  to —  ?    (Stand  and  walk  on.) 

How  are  the  toes  directed  ?    (Forward,  and  a  little  apart.) 

Why  does  the  heel  project  back  ?    (Broader  support.) 

Of  what  use  is  the  arched  instep  ?  (A  spring,  to  lessen 
the  jar  to  the  body  in  walking  and  jumping.) 

How  is  the  foot  put  down  ?  (The  heel,  ball,  and  toes  rest- 
ing on  the  ground.) 

What  parts  can  be  named  ?  (Heel,  sole,  instep,  and 
toes.) 

13.  Sole.— Where  is  this  ?    Of  what  use  ?    (A  soft,  tough 
pad  to  protect  the  foot.) 

14.  Toes.— How  many  ? 

Of  what  use  ?  (To  propel  the  body  forward  in  walking.) 
Care  of  the  Feet. — The  feet  should  be  kept  warm  and 
dry,  and  frequently  bathed.  Rubber  boots  or  sandals  are 
injurious  to  wear,  except  in  the  wet,  and  should  be  removed 
in  the  house.  Never  go  to  bed  with  cold  feet.  A  hot-water 
bottle  is  cheaper  than  the  doctor. 

15.  The  Muscles.— How  does  raw  beef  look  ?    (Red,  and 
with  a  grain  to  it.) 

Who  has  noticed  fibers  of  boiled  corned  beef  or  chicken  ? 

Stretch  a  thick  bit  of  elastic  ;  as  it  lengthens  it  be- 
comes—  ?  (Thinner.)  As  it  shortens —  ?  (Thicker.) 

Hold  the  left  forearm  out  straight,  and,  clasping  the  mid- 
dle of  the  arm  with  the  right  hand,  flex  the  forearm  till  the 
hand  touches  the  shoulder.  What  do  you  notice  ?  (A  swell- 
ing of  the  arm.) 

Grasp  the  calf  of  the  leg  with  the  hand  and  work  the  toes. 
(Motion.) 

Clasp  the  forearm  in  the  hand  and  work  the  fingers. 

Under  the  skin  and  protected  by  it,  lies  our  flesh.  It  is 
red  like  beef,  and  made  of  many  little  fibers  bound  into 


214  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

bundles  by  a  tough  tissue  such  as  you  often  see  in  meat. 
The  fibers  are  called  "muscle  fibers/'  and  the  bundles  of 
these  form  the  muscles  of  our  body. 

Muscle  contracts  and  causes  motion. 

Muscles,  like  the  India  rubber,  have  the  power  of  shorten- 
ing in  length  and  thickening  in  width  or  bulk,  as  you  found 
in  the  arm.  Most  muscles  are  fastened  to  the  bones,  and 
when  they  contract  move  the  bones  and  the  limb  they 
are  in. 

Where  are  the  ends  of  the  great  muscle  of  the  arm 
fastened  ?  (To  the  bones  of  the  arm  at  upper,  and  of  the 
forearm  at  lower  end.) 

Where  the  muscles  that  move  the  fingers  ?  (Forearm 
and  fingers.) 

Where  the  muscles  which  cause  the  leg  and  foot  to  swing 
forward  on  the  knee  ?  (To  the  thigh  bone  above,  and,  pass- 
ing by  a  curious  sliding  bone  (kneecap)  over  the  knee,  to 
the  leg  below.) 

The  bones  are  levers. 

If  a  very  heavy  stone  or  log  is  to  be  overturned,  how 
would  you  do  it  ?  (Use  crowbar  or  some  kind  of  a  stiff  bar 
to  pry  with.) 

Such  a  stiff  bar  is  called  a  lever,  and  that  which  moves  it 
is  called  the  power. 

The  first-class  lever  is  like  a  crowbar  when  used  to  pry 
up  by  pushing  down  the  other  end. 

Can  you  think  of  others  ?  (A  seesaw,  a  balance,  a  pump 
handle,  a  pair  of  scissors,  a  nutpick,  a  poker,  a  claw  hammer 
drawing  a  nail,  etc.) 

Where  is  the  weight  or  work  to  be  done  ?    (At  one  end.) 

Where  is  the  force  or  power  applied  ?  (At  the  other 
end.) 

Can  you  make  out  any  such  levers  among  our  bones  ? 
(The  foot,  when  we  tap  on  the  floor  with  the  toes.) 

What  power  causes  the  motion  ?    (The  muscles.) 

The  second-class  lever  is  like  a  bar  used  to  pry  a  thing 
along. 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMATE.  215 

Where  is  the  weight  or  work  ?  (In  the  middle.)  And 
the  power  ?  (At  the  end.) 

Can  you  think  of  other  second-class  levers  ?  (Wheel- 
barrow, nutcracker.) 

Can  you  discover  second-class  levers  in  the  body  ?  (The 
foot,  when  we  rise  on  tiptoe  or  in  walking.) 

The  third-class  lever  is  like  a  pair  of  tongs. 

Where  is  the  weight  or  work  ?  (At  one  end.)  And  the 
power  ?  (In  the  middle.) 

Name  other  third-class  levers.  (Fishing  rod,  sheep  shears, 
pincers.) 

What  third-class  levers  in  the  body  ?  (Forearm  when 
being  flexed;  the  body  in  raising  a  weight;  the  leg  when 
anything  is  lifted  on  the  toes,  etc.) 

How  many  classes  of  levers  are  there  ?    (Three.) 

Muscles  wear  out  with  use. 

Each  contraction,  each  motion  results  in  some  muscle 
tissue  being  destroyed. 

Why  does  a  man  who  works  very  hard  grow  thin  and 
lean  ?  (More  loss  than  gain.) 

Why  are  very  poor  people  also  thin  ?  (Have  not  enough 
food.) 

What  has  "  food  "  to  do  with  it  ?  (The  worn-out  muscle 
tissue  must  be  repaired,  and  food  is  necessary.) 

Which  is  fattest — a  moderately  working  or  an  idle  horse  ? 
(Idle.) 

Which  is  strongest  f    (The  working  horse.) 

Should  you  think  colts,  lambs,  and  children  would  wear 
out  much  muscle  ?  Why  ?  (Play  and  move  about  so  much.) 

Why  is  this  best  f  Yes,  they  are  growing  rapidly,  and 
small  muscles  must  develop  into  larger  ones  as  the  body 
grows. 

Do  boys,  calves,  colts,  etc.,  eat  muchf  Why  do  they 
need  to  ? 

If  confined  in  any  way  so  that  they  could  not  exercise, 
would  their  appetites  be  as  good  ? 

Why  not  ?    (Little  waste,  and  so  little  call  for  food.) 


216  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Why  do  girls  so  often  have  poor  appetites  ?  (Don't  exer- 
cise.) 

Use  of  the  muscles  improves  them. 

From  what  has  been  said,  does  proper  use  seem  to  im- 
prove the  muscles  ?  Why  ? 

Is  moderate  work,  then,  a  blessing,  or  a  hardship  ? 

Let  me  impress  this  important  truth.  The  proper  use  of 
any  of  the  powers  God  has  given  us  will  strengthen  them 
and  benefit  us. 

How  will  disuse  affect  them  ?  (Will  grow  weaker  and 
weaker.) 

How  about  overuse  or  improper  use  ?    (Will  weaken.) 

The  mole  doubtless  once  had  eyes.  Why  has  he  lost 
them  ?  (Not  used.) 

That  giddy,  thoughtless  girl  has  a  brain,  but  she  won't 
use  it.  What  will  the  end  be  ?  (Unable  to  think  to  any 
purpose.) 

That  boy  is  reading  the  fine  and  poor  print  of  a  trashy 
novel  by  a  dim  light.  Will  such  use  "  improve  "  his  sight  ? 

Will  reading  of  fights  and  wicked  doings  improve,  or 
degrade  ? 

How  about  thinking  of  evil  things?  (Strengthens  the 
evil.) 

From  your  own  experience,  do  you  find  doing  and  think- 
ing really  makes  it  easier  for  you  to  do  and  think  such  things 
again  ? 

How,  then,  should  we  always  strive  to  do  and  think  ? 
(Rightly.) 

As  we  have  first  to  learn  what  is  right,  we  see  the  need 
of  such  a  book  as  the  Bible  and  such  a  life  as  that  of  Christ. 
Study  these,  follow  their  teachings,  and  we  shall  not  fail  to 
do  the  most  for  ourselves  and  the  world.* 

Our  telltale  faces. 

*  Such  a  poem  as  Longfellow's  Psalm  of  Life  or  Bryant's  Thanatopsis, 
and  Miss  Yonge's  Book  of  Golden  Deeds  will  be  helpful  in  cultivating 
this  thought. 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  217 

Why  is  it  that  babies  will  go  to  some  strangers  and  not 
to  others  ? 

Why  are  children  afraid  of  some  people  and  why  do  they 
confide  in  others  ? 

Why  do  I  consider  it  an  honor  for  a  stranger  to  trust 
me? 

How  does  it  happen  that  beggars  will  more  often  ask  of 
some  people  than  of  others  ? 

How  do  you  suppose  a  conductor  of  a  crowded  train 
can  tell,  almost  without  fail,  who  have  paid  their  fares  ? 

Do  you  think  the  expression  of  the  face  changes  with  the 
thoughts  ? 

Why  do  not  people  in  the  wrong  look  you  full  in  the 
face  ? 

Habitual  expressions  become  fixed. 

If,  then,  as  I  think  all  will  agree,  there  is  a  constant  play 
of  expression  on  the  face,  recording  much  of  the  thoughts 
and  purposes  within,  I  have  some  important  questions  to 
ask. 

If  a  boy  exercises  the  scowling  muscles,  will  they  im- 
prove ? 

If  that  girl  frequently  uses  the  sneering  muscles,  will  they 
improve  ? 

What  kind  of  an  expression  will  that  kind-hearted  girl 
have  when  she  is  grown  ? 

Will  she  be  more,  or  less,  beautiful  ? 

Why  is  it  that  a  liar  does  not  look  in  your  face  when 
talking  ? 

Is  that  manly  expression  of  sternness  with  which  a  boy 
refuses  to  join  in  wrongdoing  indicative  of  anything  ? 

Can  you  tell  by  a  girl's  face  whether  she  is  studying  or 
idling  ? 

If  50  people  —  rogues,  gamblers,  impure,  profane,  or 
drunkards  —  and  50  others  —  kindly,  unselfish,  charitable, 
honest,  and  Christian  people — could  all  be  dressed  exactly 
alike  and  then  mixed  together,  how  many  mistakes  would 
an  ordinary  person  make  in  separating  them  again  ? 


218  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Remember,  then,  that  your  character  will  stamp  itself  on 
your  face  in  spite  of  everything. 

Which  muscles  will  you  choose  to  cultivate  ?    Why  ? 

16.  Food  to  repair  Waste.— If  the  muscles  and  skin,  to 
say  nothing  of  other  parts  of  the  body,  are  constantly  wear- 
ing out,  what  must  happen  if  we  are  to  live  and  continue  to 
exercise  ?  (Repair.) 

Did  you  ever  hear  of  anything  but  a  fairy  castle  that  was 
built  of  nothing  f 

What,  as  far  as  you  have  observed,  is  needed  to  repair  our 
bodies  ? 

See  what  I  am  going  to  write  on  the  board.  Now  name 
as  many  kinds  of  things  we  take  into  the  body  as  you  can, 
and  tell  me  where  to  write  them. 

KINDS  OF  FOODS. 

Never  spoil                  Spoil  slowly.  Spoil  quickly. 

Air                             Oatmeal  Meat 

Water                        Bread  Fish 

Salt                            Butter  and  fat  Oysters 

Potatoes  Eggs 

Cake  Milk 
Fruits 
Sugar 

Some  of  these  belong  in  two  columns — as  butter,  which  is 
made  from  the  cream  of  milk  ;  if  not  well  worked,  the 
milk  left  in  it  quickly  makes  it  spoil. 

Our  bodies  are  wonderful  machines !  All  we  have  to  do 
is  to  supply  suitable  material  in  proper  amount,  and  the  ma- 
chine then  proceeds  to  clean  itself,  oil  itself,  repair  its  breaks 
and  worn  parts,  grow  larger  or  even  new  parts  as  they  are 
needed,  and  keep  it  all  at  a  steady  temperature ! 

Who  can  name  another  machine  so  "  fearfully  and  won- 
derfully made  "  ? 

All  the  three  classes  of  foods  given  are  needful,  and  in 
order  to  understand  what  follows  I  will  say  this: 


STEP  XIX.- ANIMALS.  219 

(1)  Those  that  never  spoil  are  not  real  foods,  but  only 
elements  of  the  others. 

(2)  Those  that  spoil  slowly— the  starch  of  bread,  fruits, 
and  potatoes,  the  fat  and  butter  and  the  sugar — mainly 
serve  for  fuel  to  keep  us  warm. 

(3)  Those  that  spoil  quickly — meat,  milk,  eggs,  etc. — can 
alone  supply  the  material  to  build  and  repair  nerve  and 
muscle. 

It  is  said  that  a  dog  will  die  inside  of  50  days  if  fed  on 
white  bread  and  butter.*  Why  ?  (Not  enough  building 
material.) 

Would  the  addition  of  sugar  help  him  ?  (No,  only  heat- 
ing food.) 

How  would  candy  do  ?    (No  better.) 

Cake  is  mostly  starch,  fat,  and  sugar.  Would  that  im- 
prove the  dog  much  ? 

Would  all  this  be  equally  true  if  we  put  the  word  u  child  " 
in  place  of  "  dog  "  ? 

What  improvement  could  you  suggest  that  would  give 
the  body  a  better  diet  ?  (Use  some  milk,  meat,  and  egg  in 
place  of  part  of  the  fat  and  sugar.) 

Having  considered  the  kinds  of  foods  needed,  the  next 
question  is,  How  are  these  foods  procured  and  prepared  to 
nourish  the  body  ? 

17.  The  Eyes  see  the  Food.— Where  are  the  eyes  ?  (In 
the  front  of  the  head,  on  either  side  of  the  nose.) 

How  set  ?    (In  deep  sockets.)    Why  ?    (Protection.) 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  eye  ?    (Globular.) 

What  parts  can  be  seen  ?    (Lids,  ball,  tear.) 

What  motions  of  the  lids  ?    Of  the  balls  ? 

Observe  some  one  else,  and  tell  me  how  the  movements 
of  the  balls  differ  from  that  of  the  lids.  (Both  always  move 
exactly  together.) 

How  many  lids  are  there  ?  Which  way  does  the  bottom 
one  move  ? 

*  See  Hutch  inson's  Physiology,  p.  63,  quoted  from  Flint's  Physiology. 


220  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Observe  some  one  not  thinking  of  it,  and  count  the  num- 
ber of  winks  in  a  minute. 

If  you  look  fixedly  (without  winking)  for  a  time,  how  do 
things  appear  ?  (Blurred.) 

Can  you  see  as  well  when  facing  a  wind  ?  How  about 
winking  ?  (Faster.) 

What  happens  when  one  cries  ?  (Tears  roll  down  cheeks 
from  inner  corners  of  the  eyes.) 

Let  me  show  you  where  the  tears  come  from.  (Show 
location  of  tear  gland.) 

These  glands,  as  they  are  called,  can  strain  much  or  little 
tear-fluid  from  the  blood,  according  as  it  is  needed. 

How  does  it  get  from  the  gland  to  the  inner  corner  of  the 
eye  ?  (Lids  carry  it.)  When  ?  (In  winking.) 

What  will  the  closing  lids  do  to  the  ball  ?    (Moisten  it.) 

How  did  the  wind  or  fixed  look  cause  trouble  ?  (Eye  be- 
came dry.) 

On  the  inside  corner  of  the  eye  is  a  little  drain  to  carry 
the  extra  tear-fluid  into  the  nose. 

Why  did  you  blow  your  nose  on  coming  in  from  the 
wind  ?  (Less  tear-fluid  needed  by  eye,  and  so  more  ran  to 
nose.) 

After  crying —  ?    (Much  ran  into  nose.) 

Of  what  use  are  the  lids  ?  (Moisten  and  clean  the  ball, 
and  protect.) 

Of  what  use  are  the  eyelashes  ?  (Keep  out  dirt,  screen 
from  bright  light,  and  for  beauty.) 

Use  of  the  tears  ?    (Moisten  and  cleanse  ball.) 

Use  of  the  ball  ?    (To  see  with.) 

What  change  takes  place  in  the  eye  on  coming  from  dim 
to  strong  light  ?  (Pupil  contracts.) 

Look  at  a  book  and  then  suddenly  look  at  some  distant 
thing.  After  a  moment's  look,  return  quickly  to  the  book. 
What  did  you  notice  in  each  case  ?  (Things  blurred  at  first.) 

Yes,  the  eye  has  to  change  a  little  in  turning  from  near 
to  far  or  far  to  near  objects,  just  as  a  spyglass  needs  adjust- 
ment. 


STEP   XIX.— ANIMALS.  221 

What  did  we  call  the  things  that  caused  the  bones  to 
move  ?  (Muscles.) 

It  is  the  same  in  the  movements  and  changes  of  the  eye, 
and  the  eye  muscles  can  become  weary  as  well. 

The  iris  is  a  circular  curtain  or  shade  floating  in  a  liquid, 
and  drawn  back  and  forth  by  many  little  muscles. 

When  do  these  muscles  contract  ?    (In  a  dim  light.) 

What  do  they  do  in  a  strong  light  ?  (Those  that  close 
the  opening  contract.) 

In  a  medium  light  ?    (Both  sets  are  relaxed.)  * 

The  lens  of  the  eye  is  changed  by  muscles,  being  flattened 
when  we  look  at  distant  things,  and  becoming  more  convex 
when  we  see  near  things. 

Now  you  can  answer  some  questions. 

Why  does  reading  by  a  dim  light  fatigue  the  eyes  ? 

Why  should  we  not  look  long  at  very  bright  lights  ? 

Why  does  fine  print  fatigue  the  eye  ? 

What  kind  of  a  light  falls  on  a  book  through  the  window 
of  a  car  passing  buildings,  other  cars,  or  even  with  the  smoke 
drifting  by  ?  (Constantly  changing.) 

How  about  the  distance  from  the  eye  to  the  page  when 
riding  or  moving  in  any  way  ?  (Changing.) 

Why  are  such  things  bad  for  the  eyes  ?  (Constant 
changing  fatigues.) 

Some  of  our  great  men  learned  their  lessons  by  the  light  of 
a  fire  or  pine  knot.  Why  was  it  a  poor  light  ?  (Changeable. ) 

I  never  heard  that  their  eyesight  was  poor.  Why  not  ? 
(They  had  few  books  to  read,  only  read  a  little  at  a  time, 
lived  a  simple  life,  with  plenty  of  fresh  air,  and  so  were  able 
to  do  such  a  thing  and  not  suffer.) 

How  should  we  sit  when  reading  ?  (With  our  backs  or 
left  shoulders  toward  a  steady  light,  which  is  near  and 
strong  enough  to  enable  us  to  see  easily.) 

*  Show  the  lens  in  some  kind  of  an  eye.  If  two  are  got,  and  one  boiled, 
it  can  be  dissected  with  greater  ease,  and  help  to  an  understanding  of  the 
natural  one. 


222  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Have  we  any  way  of  knowing  that  our  eyes  are  being 
injured  ?  (At  first  they  feel  strained  and  as  though  cobwebs 
were  in  them,  and,  if  we  continue  in  the  wrong  practice,  be- 
come red  and  sore.) 

Do  you  know  any  use  for  pain  ? 

Eyebrows — where  are  they  ? 

Which  way  do  the  hairs  run  ?    (Outward.) 

Who  has  seen  a  person  with  a  very  sweaty  face  ? 

Where  did  the  perspiration  gather  and  drip  or  run  ? 
(End  of  nose  and  sides  of  face.) 

Of  what  use  are  the  eyebrows  ?  (Keep  sweat  out  of  eyes 
by  carrying  it  to  the  side.) 

How  does  a  tear  taste  f 

18.  The  Nose  tests  the  Food.— Having  decided  by  its 
looks  that  a  thing  is  good  to  eat,  how  do  we  get  where  it  is  ? 
(Our  feet  carry  us.) 

How  do  we  take  and  carry  it  to  the  mouth  ?  (With  the 
hand.) 

Where  is  the  nose  ?  (Between  the  eyes  and  just  above 
the  mouth.) 

What  parts  can  you  name  !    (Bridge,  tip,  nostrils.) 

Is  the  "bridge"  a  straight,  or  curved,  line  ? 

Does  it  curve  out ,  or  in  ? 

How  do  "  tips  "  vary  ?    Which  way  do  they  point  ? 

How  many  nostrils  are  there  ? 

Which  way  do  they  open  ?    Toward  what  ?    (Mouth.) 

What  passes  through  them  ?    (Air.) 

Should  this  air  contain  odorous  particles,  we —  ?  (Smell 
them.) 

To  give  you  an  idea  of  how  very  small  things  the  nose 
can  smell,  the  following  is  told  :  Some  musk  was  weighed 
very  carefully  and  then  exposed  to  the  air.  It  kept  giving 
out  its  odor  for  several  years,  but  when  again  weighed  it 
could  not  be  discovered  that  it  had  lost  any  weight ! 

What  uses  for  the  nose  ?  (Tear  drain ;  to  smell  with,  and 
so  guard  the  mouth.) 

If  things  smell  badly  are  they  good  for  food  ?  (Not  as  a  rule.) 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  223 

19.  The  Mouth.— Where  is  the  mouth  ?    (Just  below  the 
nose.) 

Its  shape  ?    (A  cross  slit.) 

What  parts  can  we  name  ?    (Lips,  teeth,  tongue,  saliva.) 

Of  what  use  is  the  mouth  to  us  ?    (Eat,  talk,  sing,  etc.)  * 

20.  The  Lips.— What  shape  are  the  lips  ?    What  color  ? 
What  motions  ?    Are  lips  sensitive  to  touch  and  heat  ? 
Some  muscles  are  not  attached  to  hones.     One  of  these 

surrounds  the  mouth,  and  hy  shortening  puckers  it  up. 

Of  what  use  are  the  lips  ?  (To  test  the  temperature  of 
food ;  to  take  food,  as  from  a  spoon ;  to  close  the  mouth  in 
eating,  impolite  and  rude  not  to;  to  drink,  with  by  clos- 
ing air  tight  about  the  dish  or  tube  while  the  air  behind 
is  exhausted  and  the  liquid  flows  in;  and  to  aid  in  talk- 
ing.) t 

21.  The  Tongue.— Although  the  food  has  been  examined 
by  eye,  nose,  and  lips,  it  is  once  more  tested,  that  it  may  be 
rejected,  if  unsuitable,  before  the  final  swallowing  makes  it 
too  late. 

What  receives  the  food  after  the  lips  have  taken  it  ? 
(Tongue.) 

Where  does  the  tongue  lie  ?  (In  the  center  of  the  mouth, 
back  of  the  teeth.) 

How  much  of  this  space  does  it  fill  when  the  mouth  is 
shut  ?  (All.) 

Which  end  is  fastened  ?    (Rear.) 

Wlaat  is  its  shape  ? 

What  kind  of  a  surface  has  it  ? 

Can  you  feel  with  it  ? 

Why  can  you  not  taste  sand  ?    (Insoluble.) 

How  does  the  saliva  aid  in  tasting  ?  (Dissolves  the  sub- 
stance.) 

A  fruit  often  looks  and  smells  nicely,  but  is  decayed  or 
wormy  inside.  How  do  we  find  it  out  ?  (Taste.) 

*  Learn  Psalm  xix,  14 ;  Luke,  vi,  45. 
t  Prov.  x,  19,  21 ;  xvii,  28 ;  xxii,  11. 


224  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Sometimes,  as  in  a  pill,  taste  is  not  observed  till  it  is 
crushed.  How  is  the  crushing  done  ?  (Teeth.) 

What  uses  for  the  tongue  ?  (Moves  the  food  about  in  the 
mouth;  tells  if  it  is  too  hot;  tastes,  to  see  if  it  is  "good"; 
and  aids  in  talking.) 

How  would  a  blind  person  judge  of  his  food  ?  (Smell 
and  taste.) 

If  very  strong  smells  or  tastes  are  experienced,  can  we 
observe  weaker  ones  ?  (Not  for  a  time.) 

Suppose  such  violent  sensations  were  often  repeated —  ? 
(Taste  and  smell  become  blunted  and  unable  to  detect  or  en- 
joy delicate  ones.) 

Is  it  correct  to  use  the  word  "  enjoy  "  regarding  taste  and 
smell  ?  (Certainly ;  all  our  healthy  sensations,  while  useful 
and  necessary,  are  also  most  certainly  pleasing.) 

Why  did  I  ask  my  landlady,  who  made  all  the  food  "  hot" 
with  spice,  pepper,  and  curry  powder,  if  her  other  boarders 
smoked  ? 

A  workman  of  mine,  who  smoked  almost  all  the  time, 
was  unable  to  taste  or  smell  anything. 

A  pale,  nervous  man,  sitting  near  me  at  dinner,  added 
red  pepper  to  salt  on  his  oysters,  and  also  vinegar  and  mus- 
tard. I  inferred  that  he  was  a  smoker. 

Can  you  "  eat  your  cake  and  keep  it  too  "  ? 

Which  will  you  choose  to  be— sweet,  clean,  and  enjoying 
the  delightful  tastes  and  odors  of  fruits,  flowers,  etc.,  or  for- 
feit these,  and  make  yourself  disagreeable  to  clean  people  by 
smoking  and  chewing  tobacco  ? 

Aside  from  injuring  himself  and  wasting  his  money,  is  it 
right  for  a  man  to  make  himself  disagreeable  to  others  ? 

Do  taste  and  smell  at  first  approve  of  tobacco  ? 

Do  you  like  the  taste  of  beer  ?    (Not  at  first.) 

How  does  whisky  or  any  strong  liquor  affect  the  sense 
of  taste  ?  (Very  unpleasantly.) 

How  does  the  breath  of  a  drinker  smell  ?    (Disagreeably.) 

Does  wine  please  the  senses  of  sight,  smell,  and  taste? 
(Yes.) 


STEP   XIX.— ANIMALS.  225 

Why  should  we  not  drink  that  which  is  so  pleasant  ? 

(1)  It  leads  to  stronger  drinks,  and  a  drunkard's  useless 
life  and  miserable  grave.* 

(2)  It  is  selfish.     There  are  too  many  hungry  and  poorly 
clad  people  in  the  world,  too  many  heathen  dying  for  want 
of  the  gospel,  to  use  our  money  in  drinking. 

(3)  Even  though  we  may  think  ourselves  strong  enough 
to  drink  a  little  and  then  stop  (although  many  smart  men 
have  tried  it  and  found  they  were  not),  there  are  many  ahout 
us  who  evidently  can  not  control  themselves,  and  it  is  our 
duty  to  help  these.\ 

22.  The  Teeth.— Where  are  the  teeth  ?  (Just  inside  lips 
and  cheeks.) 

How  arranged  ?    (In  two  semicircles.) 

What  are  they  set  in  ?    (Gums.) 

How  many  are  there  in  each  jaw  ?  t 

If  you  have  a  cake  to  bite,  which  teeth  do  you  use  ? 

These  are  called  cutting  teeth  or  u  incisors." 

How  many  incisors  in  each  jaw  ? 

o o 

Let  us  write  them :  i  -     -  . 

2  —  2 

What  does  "  i "  stand  for  ?    Who  can  explain  the  ^ — ^  ? 

2  • —  2 

(It  means  2  teeth  in  each  half  of  both  jaws.) 

If  you  have  a  bit  of  tough  meat  or  cloth  to  tear,  where  do 
you  take  hold  of  it  ?  (At  corners  of  the  mouth.) 

Feel  of  these  teeth.  Are  they  like  the  incisors  ?  (No, 
more  pointed.) 

We  call  these  "  canine  "  or  tearing  teeth.    How  many  ? 

What  does  c  *"""*  mean  ? 

i  ~~~  i 

If  you  have  a  hard  candy  or  grain  of  popcorn  to  crush, 
where  do  you  place  it  ?  (Between  back  teeth.) 

*  Prov.  xx,  1 ;  xxiii,  29-32 ;  Isaiah,  xxviii,  T,  8. 

t  If  proper,  have  the  class  commit  to  memory  verses  from  Proverbs,  and 
St.  Paul's  resolve  in  like  case,  Kom.  xiv,  13-21. 

|  This  will  vary  from  20  to  32,  but  in  most  9-year  children  will  be  24. 
17 


226  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

What  puts  it  there  ?    (Tongue.) 

What  kind  of  teeth  are  these  "  back  teeth  "  ?  (Broad  and 
large.) 

How  many  in  each  jaw  ? 

What  shall  we  call  them  ?    (Grinders  or  molars.) 

How  shall  I  write  them  ?   (m  |   '-\ 

Count  up  and  see  if  this  is  the  right  number. 

What  color  are  the  teeth  ? 

Of  what  use  ?    (Cut,  tear,  and  grind  food,  and  for  beauty.) 

Is  the  top  of  the  tongue  above  or  below  the  lower  teeth  ? 
(Above.) 

What  lie  close  to  the  teeth  on  the  outside  ?    (Cheeks.) 

If  food  slips  off  the  tongue,  where  must  it  get  ?  (Between 
the  teeth,  to  be  ground  up.) 

How  does  the  saliva  aid  ?   (Softens  and  prepares  the  food.) 

The  tongue  in  the  center  and  cheeks  outside  make  a  sort 
of  ditch  for  the  food  to  lie  in  while  being  ground. 

A  child's  jaw  is  small. 

How  is  he  ever  to  get  32  large  teeth  in  it  ?  (As  it  grows, 
the  small  first  teeth  fall  out,  and  more  and  larger  ones 
come.) 

If  the  second  teeth  are  lost,  will  new  ones  come  in  ? 
(No.) 

It  is  very  important  that  all  food  be  well  chewed,  and  the 
loss  of  the  teeth  is  a  serious  matter. 

How  can  the  second  teeth  be  lost  ?    (Accident  and  decay.) 

Accidents  we  can  not  help.  How  can  decay  be  avoided  ? 
(By  cleaning  with  a  stiff  brush  and  water  after  each  meal.) 

How  can  we  tell  that  decay  has  gone  far  ?    (Toothache.) 

What  use  for  feeling  in  our  teeth  ?  (To  aid  in  chewing, 
and  to  warn.) 

If  some  hot  water  is  dashed  on  cold  glass,  what  is  apt  to 
happen  ?  (Break.) 

If  hot  glass  is  suddenly  cooled  ?    (Same.) 

What  has  this  to  do  with  our  teeth  ?  (Bad  to  drink  very 
hot  or  cold  drinks,  especially  following  each  other.) 


STEP   XIX.— ANIMALS. 


227 


Is  there  any  other  way  of  cracking  the  "  enamel,"  as  the 
hard  covering  is  called  ?  (By  biting  nuts  and  hard  things.) 

Is  this  wise?  (No,  only  ignorant  or  foolish  people 
do  so.)  * 

23.  Saliva. t — What  uses  do  we  know  for  the  saliva? 
(Dissolves  for  taste,  and  softens.) 

There  is  another  very  important  use. 

Arrange  some  time  with  the  children  when  experiments 
can  be  tried,  and  then  proceed :  Will  suppose  there  are  10  in 
the  class.  Here  is  a  can  (large  tin  fruit-can  will  do  well)  of 
water  which  we  will  set  to  heat.  Let  us  make  6  nearly  equal- 
sized  pieces  of  this  bread  (no  crust),  and  6  of  the  white,  solid 
part  of  this  boiled  potato.  Each  take  his  notebook  or  a 
sheet  of  paper  and  draw  what  I  do,  having  as  many  hori- 
zontal lines  as  we  have  test  tubes  (14  in  this  case,  numbered 
1  to  14). 


No.  of  tube. 

Put  in  it- 

Result 

No.    1. 
No.    2. 
No.    3. 
No.    4. 
No.    5. 
No.    6. 
No.    7. 
No.    8. 
No.    9. 
No.  10. 
No.  11  . 
No.  12. 
No.  13. 
No.  14. 

Sirup  +  copper  test  for  sugar  

Starch  (raw)                      +  sugar  test.  . 
Bread  (crumbled)              +     "        " 
Chewed  bread  (Alice)        +     "        " 
"      (Sam)         +      " 
"          "      (Paul)        +     "        " 
"      (Mary)        +     "        " 
"      (Ethel)       +     "        " 
Potato  (mashed)                +     "        " 
Chewed  potato  (John)       +     "        " 
"           •«       (Kate)       +     "        " 
"           "       (Hubert)   +      "        " 
"       (Ralph)     +     "        " 
"       (Amy)       -f     " 

*  For  the  next  point  (saliva)  the  teacher  will  need  some  of  Trommers 
copper  test  for  sugar.  To  100  c.  c.  of  water  add  2  grammes  each  of  copper 
sulphate  and  tartaric  acid.  To  this  solution  add  caustic-potash  solution  till 
it  feels  slippery  to  the  fingers.  Bottle  and  keep  for  use.  Cork  with  a  sound 
cork,  smeared  with  vaseline,  or  do  the  same  to  a  glass  stopper. 

t  Let  the  teacher  show  pictures  of  the  3  pairs  of  glands  which  separate 
this  from  the  blood. 


228  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Each  will  see  now  what  he  or  she  is  to  do. 

Chew  the  bread  or  potato  for  1  minute,  and  then  spit  the 
ground-up  food  and  saliva  into  the  test  tube  having  your 
number  on  it,  and  stand  it  in  the  can  of  water. 

While  you  are  doing  this  I  will  fix  the  other  4  tubes. 

Proceed  to  pour  £  inch  of  sirup  in  No.  1 ;  a  bit  of  starch 
as  large  as  a  marble  (powdered)  in  No.  2 ;  crumble  the  bread 
fine  and  put  in  No.  3 ;  and  mash  the  potato  for  No.  9. 

When  the  14  tubes  are  ready,  promptly  pour  5  c.  c.  (2 
inches)  of  the  sugar  test  in  each  and  set  the  can  on  to  boil 
for  1  to  3  minutes,  or  till  some  of  the  solutions  have  turned 
brown.  Then  take  it  off  the  fire,  examine,  and  fill  in  the 
column  of  "  results,"  which  should  be,  if  all  has  gone  right, 
as  follows: 

No.  1 :  Turned  brown. 

No.  2:  Not,  or  but  slightly,  changed. 

Nos.  3  and  9 :  Slightly  brown. 

Nos.  4  to  8  and  10  to  14:  Brown. 

Has  sirup  sugar  in  it  ? 

What  is  the  test  for  sugar  ?    (Brown  color.) 

Does  starch  behave  the  same  as  sugar  ? 

What  is  bread  and  potato  mostly  —  starch,  or  sugar  ? 
(Starch.) 

What  proof  ?    (Neither  changed  color  much.) 

Why  did  they  change  a  little,  as  raw  starch  did  not  at  all  ? 
(Cooked.) 

Why  did  all  the  chewed  food  show  so  much  change  ? 
(The  saliva  turned  some  of  the  starch  to  sugar  /) 

Yes,  it  is  truly  wonderful  how  rapidly  this  is  done. 

What  is  the  other  use  for  saliva  ?  (To  turn  the  starch  of 
our  food  to  sugar.) 

Why  is  it  important  to  chew  our  food  well  f 

Why  is  it  injurious  to  health  to  spit  much  ? 

Is  it  polite  to  spit  on  the  floor  or  before  people  ? 

Tobacco  users  spit  a  great  deal.  What  is  another  reason 
for  not  using  tobacco  ? 

24.  The  Throat. — If,  after  the  tests  of  eyes,  nose,  and 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  229 

tongue,  aided  by  the  teeth  and  saliva,  we  are  still  satisfied 
with  the  food,  it  is  swallowed. 

Can  a  boy,  hanging  head  down,  swallow  ?    (Yes.) 

Does  the  food  fall  down  the  throat  ?  (No,  there  are  more 
circular  muscles,  like  those  about  the  mouth  and  iris,  to 
carry  it  down — or  up.) 

I  once  saw  an  instructive  sight  on  a  train.  A  boy  and 
two  ladies  were  eating  some  lunch,  and  a  pie  was  brought 
out  and  cut  in  quarters — one  for  each,  and  one  piece  left  over. 
The  boy  seemed  afraid  that  one  of  the  ladies  would  eat  her 
piece  first  and  have  the  extra  piece,  so  he  took  one  or  two 
hasty  bites  and  then  crammed  the  rest  all  in  his  mouth  at 
once  and  tried  to  swallow. 

Did  you  ever  see  a  hen  work  her  head  and  neck  when  she 
has  too  big  a  mouthful  ?  Well,  he  did  the  same ;  turned  red, 
and  then  black  in  the  face,  as  he  tried  to  force  it  down,  till  I 
was  really  frightened.  At  last,  with  a  heroic  struggle  and  a 
gasp,  he  succeeded,  and  at  once  reached  out  a  dirty  hand  and 
grunted  u More"! 

Suppose  he  had  not  been  able  to  succeed —  ?  (Would 
have  strangled.) 

Of  the  boy's  conduct  nothing  good  can  be  said,  but  what 
mistakes  did  he  make  ?  (Did  not  chew  his  food,  and  tried  to 
swallow  it  in  too  large  pieces.) 

What  is  another  reason  for  chewing  the  food  fine  and 
moistening  it  with  saliva?  (So  that  it  can  slip  down  the 
throat.) 

25.  Stomach.*— This  is  a  bag  or  pouch  where  the  food  first 
stops  after  its  passage  through  the  throat. 

It  is  covered  with  a  soft,  velvety  lining,  and  has  muscles 
running  around  and  lengthwise.  (See  tripe  from  cow's 
stomach.) 

When  food  enters  it  the  surface  "blushes,"  and  a  sour 
fluid  begins  to  ooze  out,  called  gastric  juice.  This  has  power 
to  dissolve  the  real  building-up  foods,  such  as  meat,  eggs, 

*  Have  a  piece  of  tripe  to  show. 


230  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

milk,  and  fish,  when  warm,  but  can  not  touch  starch  or  fats. 
As  the  gastric  juice  flows  on  to  the  food,  the  muscles  running 
in  both  directions  contract  alternately,  and  so  knead  or  churn 
the  food,  bringing  all  parts  in  contact  with  the  soft,  moist 
walls,  which  soak  up  and  send  into  the  blood  some  of  the 
dissolved  portion. 

Why  is  food  in  unchewed  lumps  hard  to  digest  ?  (Solv- 
ents can  not  get  at  it.) 

Why  is  much  ice  water  or  very  cold  food  injurious  ? 
(Cold  stops  digestion.) 

Why  should  we  be  well  clothed  over  the  stomach  ?  (To 
keep  it  warm  so  that  it  can  work.) 

Why  is  too  much  food  at  once  harmful  ?  (More  than  the 
stomach  can  handle.) 

Why  does  milk  u disagree"  with  many  people?  (They 
use  it  as  water,  and,  being  really  a  nourishing  food,  overload 
the  stomach.) 

Why  do  we  have  the  "  stomach  ache  "  ?  (To  let  us  know 
something  is  wrong.) 

If  from  any  cause — wrong  food  or  a  disordered  stomach 
— food  is  not  wanted,  the  stomach  violently  contracts  and 
we—  ?  (Vomit.) 

Is  it  best  it  should  throw  off  the  food  ?  (Yes,  better  than 
to  keep  it.) 

After  the  food  has  remained  long  enough,  a  *'  doorkeeper  " 
(pylorus)  lets  the  finer  portions  first,  and  the  coarser  frag- 
ments later,  out  into  the  intestine. 

26.  The  Bowels  or  Intestines.— But  little  can  be  said  of 
these.  Show  some  chart  or  cut,  and  notice  how  the  "  small " 
intestine  succeeds  the  stomach  and  ends  in  the  "  large  "  in- 
testine. 

Here  the  starch,  which  was  not  changed  (to  what  ?)  by 
the  saliva,  is  turned  to  sugar,  and  the  fats  made  into  a  milky 
fluid. .  After  the  intestines  have  soaked  up  all  they  can,  the 
undigested  lumps,  which  have  been  a  source  of  trouble  ever 
since  they  hurt  in  swallowing,  and  all  refuse  and  useless 
matters,  gather  for  ejection  from  the  body  by  a  "  movement 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  231 

of  the  bowels"  That  this  he  regular  is  of  vital  importance, 
for  the  mass  of  refuse  rapidly  decomposes  and  gives  rise  to 
headache  and  various  disorders. 

Such  an  important  matter  should  not  he  omitted  from 
any  false  idea  of  propriety,  as  often  happens  when  a  child, 
or  even  grown  person  among  strangers,  is  ashamed  to  ask 
the  way  to  the  closet. 

27.  The  Outer  Skin  and  Inner  Lining  of  the  Body  are 
the  Same. — So  much  hinges  on  this,  I  should  want  the  pu- 
pils to  understand  that  the  tough  outer  skin  passes  in  at 
the  lips  and  forms  the  delicate  lining  to  the  interior  organs, 
and  that  which  hurts  one  part  of  this  affects  the  others 
also. 

Why  may  wet  feet  result  in  a  sore  throat  ? 

Why  does  improper  food  cause  pimples  ? 

Why  may  a  chill  to  the  skin  result  in  a  u  cold  "  ? 

Why  may  a  u wetting"  result  in  earache  or  tooth- 
ache? 

Why  is  a  hot-water  bag  good  for  the  colic  ? 

Why  is  it  said  the  best  place  to  wear  lung  protectors  is 
on  the  feet  f  (Rubbers.) 

28.  The  Dissolved  Food  passes  into  the  Blood.— What  was 
the  first  step  in  getting  food  to  repair  waste  ?    (See  it.) 

The  next?    (Take  it.)    Next?    (Nose  tests.) 

The  next  ?    (Put  in  lips.) 

Then  ?    (Bite  and  chew  it.) 

Then  ?    (Tongue  tests  it.) 

Then  ?    (Saliva  dissolves  the  starch.) 

It  is  then—  ?    (Swallowed.) 

What  does  the  stomach  do  ?  (Dissolves  the  meat,  etc., 
and  soaks  up  some.) 

The  intestines  ?  (Complete  the  solution  of  starch,  fat,  etc., 
and  soak  up.) 

What  is  the  color  of  blood  ?    (Red.) 

What  is  it  like  ?    (A  watery  fluid.) 

What  important  thing  does  it  contain  ?  (Material  to  re- 
build.) 


232  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Loaded  with  this  it  comes  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart.* 

29.  The  Heart  pumps  the  Blood  all  over  the  Body.— Place 
the  hand  over  the  heart.     Can  you  feel  the  heats  ? 

Place  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  on  the  inside  of  the 
left  wrist  near  the  outer  edge.  (Pulse.) 

Each  count  the  beats  in  one  minute,  while  sitting. 

Count  them  again  after  running  or  exercise. 

How  are  the  heats  of  the  heart  and  pulse  related  ?    (Same.) 

What  is  u  the  pulse  "  ?  (Blood  rushing  to  the  hand  from 
the  heart.) 

Feel  the  side  of  the  neck  and  see  if  blood  also  rushes  to 
the  head. 

When  undressing,  see  if  pulses  can  be  found  in  the  limbs. 

30.  Stiff;  Elastic  Tubes,  called  Arteries,  carry  the  blood 
from  the  heart  to  the  lungs  and  body.     These  keep  dividing 
and  dividing  again  till  the  branches  are  so  "  hairlike  "  as  to 
be  called  capillaries. 

Will  a  fine  needle  prick  draw  blood  ? 

Does  the  skin  or  face  look  a  uniform  pink  in  blushing  ? 

After  heating  or  brisk  rubbing  does  the  skin  look  all  red  ? 

What  do  these  things  show  as  to  the  fineness  of  the  capil- 
laries ? 

Where  are  there  none  of  these  fine  blood-vessels  ?  (Hair, 
nails,  and  outer  skin.) 

Why  is  it  needful  that  the  blood  go  to  every  part  ?  (To 
repair.) 

How  this  repairing  is  done  we  can  not  now  consider. 

31.  Air.— Where  is  air  ?    (Everywhere.) 
Is  it  of  any  use  to  us  ?    (To  breathe.) 

Shut  the  dampers  of  a  stove  tightly.    Will  the  fire  burn  ? 

If  the  openings  in  a  lantern  are  closed —  ?    (Goes  out.) 

Things  must  have  air  to  burn.  Let  us  try  a  beautiful 
experiment  and  learn  some  things  about  air. 

Here  is  a  shallow  dish  with  a  quart  of  water.  In  it  I  will 
stand  this  small  bottle  filled  with  sand.  Why  has  it  sand  in 

*  The  class  will  profit  by  the  examination  of  a  calf  s  or  sheep's  heart. 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  233 

it  ?  (So  that  it  will  not  float  and  tip  over.)  If  the  hottle  is 
less  than  4  inches  high,  a  crayon  can  be  stuck  in  the  neck. 
On  the  hottle  I  lay  a  small  bit  of  tin  (or  any  metal),  and  on 
that  a  piece  of  phosphorus  the  size  of  a  pea.  This  is  a  very 
dangerous  substance,  and  if  handled  with  the  fingers  might 
take  fire  and  burn  them  terribly ;  so  I  never  touch  it  but  with 
forceps,  and  always  cut  and  keep  it  under  water.  See !  the 
phosphorus  is  already  smoking,  as  if  ready  to  take  fire.  Here 
is  a  two-quart  fruit  jar,  whose  mouth  is  wide  enough  to  go 
over  the  bottle  standing  in  the  water.  With  this  all  ready, 
I  light  the  phosphorus  and  quickly  invert  the  jar  over  it  and 
push  its  mouth  down  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 

How  it  burns !  What  beautiful  columns  of  white  smoke ! 
Now  it  has  stopped  burning,  and  see!  the  water  is  slowly 
rising  in  the  jar !  We  will  let  it  stand  till  the  next  lesson, 
and  see  how  high  the  water  will  rise. 

Now  what  do  you  notice  ?  (Smoke  all  gone  and  water 
risen.) 

Let  us  examine  the  air  that  is  left.  I  will  slip  this  piece 
of  window  glass  under  the  mouth  of  the  jar,  so  as  to  hold  in 
the  water  and  bottle  of  sand,  while  I  gently  turn  it,  mouth 
up,  on  the  table. 

What  seems  to  be  above  the  water  ?    (Air.) 

I  light  a  match.     Does  it  burn  in  air  ? 

Gently  sliding  the  sheet  of  glass  off  of  part  of  the  mouth, 
I  put  in  the  lighted  match.  (Goes  out.) 

Let  us  try  again.     (Out  again  !) 

Is  it  really  air  ?    (No;  will  not  help  a  match  burn.) 

Right !  Air  seems  to  be  one  gas,  but  is  really  two.  One 
of  these,  called  oxygen,  helps  things  burn ;  while  the  otheri 
called  nitrogen,  will  not. 

Which  is  now  in  the  jar  ? 

What  became  of  the  oxygen  ?  (Was  burned  out  by  the 
phosphorus.) 

What  took  its  place  as  it  burned  out  ?    (Water.) 

How  much  O  was  there  in  the  jar  of  air  ?  (Measure  the 
water.) 


234:  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

How  much  N  ?    (The  rest  of  the  jar.)  * 

Air,  then,  is  made  of —  ?    (O  and  N  mixed  together.) 

What  part  is  O  ?  (About  one  fifth.)  Nitrogen  ?  (Fou> 
fifths.) 

Which  of  these  gases  helps  things  to  burn  ?    (Oxygen.) 

32.  Carbon  Dioxide  (CO8).— Phosphorus,  in  uniting  with 
O,  formed  fumes  which  disappeared  in  the  water. 

Do  we  see  such  fumes  from  a  candle,  wood  fire,  or  oil 
lamp  ?  (Not  often.) 

If  the  top  of  a  lamp  chimney  is  closed  ?    (Goes  out.) 

Here  is  a  wide-mouthed  bottle.  Into  it  I  will  lower  this 
bit  of  lighted  candle  (by  a  wire  twisted  around  it)  and  cover 
the  mouth.  Note  what  happens.  (Burns  fainter,  flickers, 
and  goes  out.) 

Light  the  candle  and  lower  again.     (At  once  goes  out.) 

Let  me  rinse  out  the  bottle  and  try  this  again. 

Before  putting  in  the  candle  I  will  turn  in  this  lime- 
water '.t 

What  is  above  the  water  ?  (Air.)  And  air  is  composed 
of—  ?  (O  and  N.) 

I  will  shake  the  air  and  water  together. 

Does  O  or  N  turn  lime  water  milky  ?    (No.) 

Now  I  will  lower  the  burning  candle  as  before.  When 
it  has  gone  out,  remove  the  candle  and  shake  again. 

How  about  the  water  now  ?    (Milky.) 

A  gas  came  from  the  burning  wax  or  tallow  which  we 
call  carbon  dioxide  (or  u  CO2 ''  for  short). 

How  does  CO9  behave  with  lime  water  ?    (Turns  it  milky.) 

How  is  it  like  N  ?    (Puts  out  a  flame.) 

This  CO 8  comes  from  all  burning  and  decaying  wood,  fat, 
starch,  or  flesh. 

*  AB  the  bottle  and  sand  were  in  the  jar  before  the  mouth  touched  the 
water,  their  volume  should  be  subtracted  from  the  volume  of  N,  which 
should  be  about  4  times  the  O. 

t  Get  some  of  the  clear  water  above  the  lime  in  a  mortar  bed,  or  drop  a 
piece  of  "  stone  lime,"  the  size  of  an  egg,  into  a  large  bottle  of  water  and  let 
it  settle. 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  235 

"  Choke  damp "  is  the  name  given  to  this  CO2  in  coal 
mines,  and  many  men  have  lost  their  lives  by  it. 

33.  Water  is  made  when  Fats,  Starch,  etc.,  burn  with 
Oxygen. — When  a  kerosene  lamp  is  first  lighted,  how  does 
the  chimney  appear  ?    (Dimmed  by  moisture.) 

Hold  a  cold  dry  glass  over  a  candle  a  moment.  (Moist 
inside.) 

I  once  knew  a  church  where  long  pipes  led  from  the 
large  stoves  through  a  cold  upper  room  to  the  chimneys. 
There  was  great  trouble  from  the  black,  watery  stuff  which 
dripped  from  the  joints.  Where  did  the  water  come  from  ? 
(The  fires.) 

34.  The  Nose  is  made  to  Breathe  through.— What  use  did 
we  before  find  for  the  nose  ?    (To  test  food.) 

It  is  also  intended  to  tell  us  about  the  air  we  breathe,  and 
warn  against  impure  air.  The  passages  are  narrow  and 
moist,  and  there  are  hairs  at  the  entrance. 

I  once  visited  an  iron  mine,  where  they  burned  oil  for 
lights,  and  each  of  us  carried  a  smoky  lamp. 

When  I  came  out,  my  mustache  below  the  nose  was 
black  with  soot,  and  my  nostrils  so  filled  I  had  to  wash  them 
out. 

Of  what  use  was  my  nose  ?    (Purified  the  air.) 

Yes,  all  that  smoke  would  have  gone  into  my  lungs  had 
not  the  nose  strained  and  purified  the  air. 

How  do  the  hairs  help  ?    (Check  the  air.) 

And  the  moist,  narrow  passages  ?  (Catch  the  dust, 
and  warm  and  moisten  the  air  ready  for  the  delicate 
lungs.) 

I  think  you  can  see  now  why  we  should  always,  when 
possible,  breathe  through  our  noses. 

I  have  read  that  no  one  thing  sends  so  many  people  to  the 
graveyard  as  breathing  through  the  mouth. 

Keep  trying  till  you  learn  to  regularly  breathe  through 
the  nose,  especially  when  you  first  leave  a  warm  room  for 
the  cold  air  of  winter. 

Do  people  that  breathe  through  their  noses  snore  f 


236  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

35.  The  Chest.* — After  the  air  has  passed  the  nose  it  enters 
the  lungs.      These  are  very  important  and  very  delicate. 
For  their  protection  a  kind  of  box  is  made  by  the  stiff  ribs, 
which  is  called  the  chest. 

The  ribs  are  kept  apart  in  front  by  a  flat  bone  called  the 
breastbone.  When  young,  this  is  thin  and  mostly  gristle, 
so  that  it  bends  easily. 

Suppose  it  does  bend  or  double  over  ?  (Permits  the  ribs 
to  press  in  and  makes  the  chest  small.) 

This  is  a  very  serious  thing,  since  much  depends  on  a,  full 
and  ample  chest. 

How  is  this  bending  apt  to  occur  ?  (By  growing  children 
sitting  in  a  doubled-up  posture,  bending  over  a  desk,  or  by  a 
lazy  drooping  of  the  shoulders.)  t 

How  can  the  chest  be  expanded  ?    (Stand  and  sit  erect.) 

Do  you  admire  an  erect  carriage  of  the  body  ? 

How  can  this  useful  habit  be  acquired  ?  (By  trying  and 
practicing.  Walk  erect  and  with  the  shoulders  well  back. 
Walk  with  a  book  on  the  head  for  5  minutes  each  day.  A 
cane  across  the  back  and  through  the  bent  arms  also  keeps 
the  shoulders  in  position.  Practice  taking  very/wZZ  breaths.) 

36.  The  Lungs.— Inside  this  stiff,  protecting  chest  lie  the 
two  lungs.     (Show  pictures  and  diagrams.) 

These  are  like  huge  and  much-branched  bunches  of 
grapes,  whose  "stems"  are  tubes  and  "grapes"  are  hollow 
and  thin-walled  bladders  filled  with  air. 

In  the  walls  of  these  bladders  run  a  multitude  of  the 
little  tubes  we  call  capillaries. 

What  is  in  these  capillaries  ?    (Blood.) 

How  thick  is  the  skin  which  separates  the  blood  in  the 
capillary  from  the  air  filling  the  bladder  or  "cell,"  as  we  call 
it?  (Very  thin.) 

In  such  a  case,  where  a  warm  liquid,  like  blood,  is  separated 

*  Show  diagrams  aDd  pictures. 

t  See  the  crooked  breastbones  of  many  chickens  who  have  roosted  too 
young. 


STEP   XIX.— ANIMALS  237 

from  the  air  by  a  thin  skin,  we  find  it  both  gives  to  and  re- 
ceives from  the  air. 

Let  us  first  see  what  the  blood  gains. 

37.  The  Blood  gains  Oxygen  in  the  Lungs.— The  blood 
comes  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  where  we  left  it  (28), 
to  the  lungs,  and  there,  in  addition  to  the  food  for  repairing 
from  the  stomach,  it  gains  oxygen  and  returns  to  the  left 
side  of  the  heart.     From  here  it  is  sent  flying  to  all  parts  of 
the  body  and  skin.     To  do  what  ?     (Rebuild.)     Yes,  and 
something  else. 

38.  The  Oxygen  burns  up  the  Worn-out  Portions  and  keeps 
us  warm.— Coal  is  shoveled  into  the  furnace  several  times  a 
day. 

Why  does  it  not  get  full  and  stay  so  ?    (Burns  out.) 

What  comes  from  burning  coal  ?  (CO2,  water,  and 
ashes.) 

What  becomes  of  each  ?  (CO2  and  steam  go  up  chim- 
ney.) 

The  butcher  brings  meat,  and  the  grocer  flour,  sugar,  etc., 
day  after  day. 

Why  are  they  not  told  to  stop  ?  (Food  continually  eaten 
at  table.) 

Do  any  of  you  ever  need  new  clothes  ?  Why  ?  (Wear 
out.) 

Yes;  the  ashes  must  be  shoveled  out,  and  the  old  clothing 
cast  aside,  before  new  and  fresh  can  be  received. 

Now,  how  often  do  we  eat  ? 

This  food  is  dissolved,  as  we  have  seen,  and  passes  into 
the  blood  to—  ?  (Repair.) 

Who  can  tell  me  what  else  must  be  done  ?  (Worn-out 
parts  removed.) 

What  does  the  blood  contain  besides  building  material  ? 
(Oxygen.) 

Think  of  what  we  have  talked  of,  and  see  if  you  can  not 
tell  me  what  happens.  Good  !  That's  it !  The  oxygen  burns 
out  the  used-up  tissue. 

In  doing  this — in  removing  what  is  no  longer  needed — 


238  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

what  else  is  done  which  is  very  needful  ?  (We  are  kept 
warm. ) 

Did  you  ever  hear  of  anything  more  wonderful  than  these 
bodies  of  ours  ?  Just  think  of  it!  After  the  muscles  have 
done  their  work,  the  dead  and  used-up  remains  form  part  of 
the  fuel  to  keep  us  warm ! 

Some  one  may  wonder  why  we  do  not  burn  all  up! 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  live  horse  and  a  dead 
one  ?  (The  dead  one  quickly  decays.) 

Yes,  the  life  in  him  would  not  let  the  oxygen  cause  decay, 
but  as  soon  as  the  life  is  gone  the  oxygen  begins  to  take  him 
to  pieces. 

So  it  is  only  the  used-up,  "  dead  "  portions  of  muscle  and 
nerve  which  the  oxygen  in  the  blood  can  affect. 

What  did  we  find  the  oxygen  of  the  air  made  out  of  fats, 
oils,  meat,  etc.  ?  (CO t  and  water.) 

Yes,  and  some  other  soluble  things  that  we  can  not  study 
now. 

What  kind  of  substances  could  the  stomach  absorb  or 
soak  up  ?  (Dissolved.) 

Yes ;  and  will  liquid  water  and  gaseous  CO8  be  carried  by 
the  blood  as  well  ? 

39.  The  Capillaries  reunite  to  form  Veins,— Having  done 
its  repairing  and  gathered  up  the  "  ashes  "  from  the  burning 
which  keeps  us  warm,  the  tiny  capillaries  unite  and  keep 
uniting  to  form  the  larger  and  larger  veins,  which  are  to 
return  the  impure  blood  to  the  heart. 

Why  do  veins  have  no  pulse  ?  (No  heart  to  directly  pump 
into  them.) 

Why  need  they  not  be  so  Wrong  as  the  arteries  ?  (Only 
drains.) 

To  what  side  of  the  heart  does  the  blood  return  ?    (Right.) 

40.  How  the  Blood  is  purified  in  the  Lunga— As  the  heart 
receives  all  this  impure  blood,  what  question  naturally  arises  ? 
(How  are  these  impurities  to  be  got  rid  of  ?) 

Let  us  see.    The  blood  now  goes  to—  ?    (The  lungs.) 
And  there  it  gains —  ?    (O.) 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  239 

Now  in  this  world  you  may  be  sure  that "  there  is  no  gain 
without  corresponding  loss." 

What  is  it  we  wish  the  blood  to  lose  ?  (CO2  and 
water.) 

Can  any  one  suggest  a  way  of  testing  the  expired  breath 
for  these  ?  (Very  likely  not,  but  give  a  chance.) 

Here  are  test  tubes  (or  little  bottles),  with  lime  water  and 
a  straw  in  each.  Blow  your  breath  gently  through  the  straw, 
and  let  it  bubble  up  through  the  limewater.  What  do  you 
observe  ?  What  does  it  indicate  ? 

Breathe  on  a  clean,  cold  looking-glass  or  window  pane. 
Is  there  water  coming  from  the  lungs  ?  (Show  one  half  pint 
of  water,  which  is  nearly  the  average  daily  amount  from  the 
lungs.) 

Yes,  as  the  O  passes  into  the  blood,  the  CO2  and  vapor  of 
water  pass  out,  and  the  blood  is  all  the  better  for  the  ex- 
change. 

Why  should  we  breathe  pure  air  ?    (To  supply  O.) 

Why  breathe  deeply  and  full  ?  (So  as  to  fill  each  cell  of 
the  lungs,  and  cause  as  quick  and  full  an  exchange  as  pos- 
sible.) 

Can  we  breathe  deeply  when  bent  over  ?  (No ;  must  be 
erect.) 

Can  we  breathe  deeply  with  tight  clothing,  like  corsets, 
on  ? 

Can  we  breathe  deeply  with  a  great  weight  of  clothing 
on  the  hips  ? 

Where  should  our  clothing  hang  from  ?    (Shoulders.) 

Why  should  the  air  of  occupied  rooms  be  frequently 
changed  ?  (To  get  rid  of  the  CO8  breathed  out,  and  sup- 
ply O.) 

Why  does  impure  air  cause  a  poor  appetite  ?  (Waste  not 
got  rid  of.) 

Why  are  people  who  breathe  bad  air  or  take  feeble  breaths 
pale  ?  (Blood  does  not  get  enough  O.) 

Why  are  they  easily  chilled  ?  (The  "  fires "  burn 
poorly.) 


240  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

41.  How  the  Skin  helps.— Having  got  a  fresh  stock  of  O 
in  exchange  for  part  of  its  COg  and  watery  vapor,  the  blood 
goes  back — to  which  side  of  the  heart  ? 

From  there  the  arteries  carry  it  through  the  body  and 

also  to  the  skin. 

What  does  the  skin  give  out  ?    (Oil,  to  keep  it  soft.) 

True  enough,  but  what  else  ?    (Perspiration.) 

What  is  that  ?    (A  salt-tasting  watery  fluid.) 

What,  then,   does  the  blood  get  rid  of    in  the  skin  ? 

(Water  and  various  salts.) 

Here  is  a  quart  of  water.     Experiments  have  showed  that 

to  be  about  the  amount  daily  given  off  from  the  skin.    It  is 

being  given  off  all  the  time,  although  we  only  see  it  when  it 

is  forming  faster  than  it  can  dry  away. 

42.  How  the  Body  is  kept  from  overheating.— How  hot 
are  our  bodies  ?    (Test  with  a  thermometer — 98°  F.) 

Yes ;  if  we  place  a  thermometer  inside  the  body — as  under 
the  tongue,  or  in  a  protected  place,  as  the  arm  pit — we  find, 
when  healthy,  our  temperature  is  about  98°  F. 

If  it  fall  even  a  little  below  this,  we  have  a  "chill." 

If  it  rise  a  little  above,  we  have  a  "  fever." 

Now,  our  bodies  are  often  exposed  to  great  heat,  and  still, 
in  health,  do  not  vary  in  temperature. 

Bakers,  it  is  said,  will  spend  several  minutes  in  the  huge 
ovens  hot  enough  to  bake  bread,  and  not  be  baked. 

Men  will  work  about  iron  furnaces,  where  it  is  very  hot, 
and  not  get  "  in  a  fever." 

In  the  heart  of  mountains,  as  when  the  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel 
was  made  between  France  and  Italy,*  the  workmen  found  it 
very  warm,  and  still,  although  very  exhausting,  their  tem- 
perature remained  the  same. 

We  often  work  or  play  in  the  hot  sun. 

Who  can  think  how  our  bodies  are  kept  cool  ?  (Perspira- 
tion carries  off  the  heat.)  Sweat  is  mostly —  ?  (Water.) 

Is  water  well  fitted  to  carry  off  heat  ?    (The  best.) 

*  Find  these  on  the  map  with  the  class. 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  241 

What  do  we  need  often  when  perspiring  freely  ?  (Water 
to  drink.) 

As  the  cold  water  enters  the  stomach,  how  does  it  help  ? 
(Takes  up  the  extra  heat  in  getting  warm.) 

This  warmed  water  goes  into  the  blood  and  is  sent  to  the 
skin  to  be  again  given  off.  But  this  is  not  the  end  of  the 
cooling.  Water  not  only  takes  a  great  deal  of  heat  in  warm- 
ing, but  when  it  comes  to  dry  up — evaporate,  as  we  call  it — 
it  takes  a  great  deal  more ;  more  than  5  times  as  much. 

How  does  that  help  ?    (Cools  the  skin  as  it  dries  away.) 

Let  me  give  you  an  idea  of  how  great  this  cooling  is. 
Each  hold  his  hand  while  with  this  dropper  I  place  a  drop 
of  alcohol  on  the  back.  Rub  it  over  the  surface,  and  then 
gently  blow  to  dry  it  away.  How  does  it  feel  ?  (Cold.) 

Here  is  a  thermometer.  It  now  stands  at  68°  F.  I  slip 
this  little  mitten  of  cotton  cloth  over  the  bulb,  wet  the  cloth 
with  ether  (or  alcohol),  and  put  it  in  a  draught,  "  fan  "  it,  or 
wave  it  gently  to  and  fro. 

What  is  now  happening  to  the  ether  ?    (Drying  away.) 

The  mercury  goes  down  and  down — 65°,  62°,  60°,  etc. 

What  does  this  falling  indicate  ?    (Being  cooled.) 

What  cools  it  ?    (The  ether  evaporating.) 

Why  is  it  dangerous  to  go  with  wet  feet  ?  (The  heat  is 
taken  from  them  by  the  water.) 

Why  do  we  feel  cool  in  a  draught  of  air  ?  (Evaporates 
the  perspiration.) 

Why  does  fanning  cool  us  ?    (Hastens  the  evaporation.) 

Why  do  we  feel  cooler  after  wiping  the  sweat  from  our 
faces  ? 

Now,  how  is  our  body  warmed  ?  (Burning  up  of  dead 
and  worn-out  material,  and  also  unneeded  fat,  etc.) 

How  is  it  kept  from  " overheating"  ?  (The  skin,  in  free- 
ing the  blood  of  its  extra  water,  also  gets  rid  of  heat  as 
well.) 

43.  Glands.— What  did  the  tear  glands  strain  from  the 
blood  ?  (Tear-fluid.) 

What,  the  6  salivary  glands  ?    (Saliva.) 
18 


242  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

The  glands  of  the  stomach  ?    (Gastric  juice.) 

There  are  many  other  very  important  glands  in  the  body, 
each  separating  some  needed  or  some  injurious  substance 
from  the  hlood. 

Outside  we  found  the  oil  glands  to —  ?  (Oil  hair  and 
skin.) 

Now  look  at  the  palms  of  the  hands.  What  do  you  see 
crossing  them  ?  (Many  fine  lines  or  ridges.) 

If  you  could  see  these  under  a  strong  lens,  rows  of  little 
openings  (show  picture)  would  appear  along  each.  These 
are  the  mouths  of  the  little  coiled-up  glands  which  take  the 
perspiration  from  the  hlood. 

44.  The  Care  of  the  Skin.— What  is  being  poured  out  upon 
the  skin  ?    (Oil  and  perspiration.) 

As  the  water  dries  away,  what  is  left  ?  (Oil,  salts,  etc., 
and  dead  skin.) 

How  will  these  affect  the  mouths  of  the  sweat  glands  ? 
(Stop  them.) 

Is  it  important  they  should  he  kept  open  ?    (Very.) 

How  is  it  best  done  ?    (By  bathing.) 

Who  most  need  the  bath — those  who  exercise  much,  OP 
little  ?  (Little.) 

Why  ?    (All  the  waste  matter  is  left  on  the  skin.) 

How  with  those  who  exercise  freely  ?  (Sweat  more,  and 
clothing  removes  it.) 

When  shall  we  bathe  ?    (Best  on  rising  in  the  morning.) 

Shall  we  use  warm,  or  cold,  water  ?    (Cold,  if  we  are  well.) 

How  shall  we  bathe  ?  (Combine  gymnastics  and  the 
bath.  Bub  face,  neck,  arms,  and  chest  energetically  with 
the  bare  wet  hands,  and  quickly  rub  dry  with  a  coarse  towel ; 
then  bathe  the  lower  part  of  the  body  in  the  same  way,  and 
quickly  dress.) 

Do  this  daily  in  warm  weather,  and  once  in  two  days  in 
the  winter.  Use  plenty  of  muscle  in  the  rubbing,  and  soap 
once  a  week. 

45.  The  Ears. — One  use  of  the  lungs  and  mouth  was  to 
talk. 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  243 

Do  we  talk  to  ourselves  ? 
How  do  others  hear  us  ?    (With  their  ears.) 
These  ears  are,  if  possible,  more  wonderful  than  any 
other  part  of  the  hody  we  have  talked  of,  but  we  can  not 
study  them  now.    They  need  good  care,  however. 

(1)  At  the  end  of  the  orifice  is  a  very  delicate  part,  easily 
injured ;  so  follow  the  advice  of  a  doctor,  who  said,  "  Never 
put  anything  into  your  ears  smaller  than  your  elbow" 

Do  not  poke  pencils  or  things  of  that  kind  into  the  ear, 
and  never  fire  a  gun,  cracker,  or  make  any  loud  noise,  close 
to  an  ear.  It  may  ruin  it  for  life. 

(2)  "Take  heed  what  ye  hear."    Never  listen  to  vulgar, 
profane  talk,  nor  to  bad  things  told  of  others.      Do  not 
choose  people  who  talk  in  this  manner  for  companions,  nor 
stay  in  their  company. 

Follow  General  Washington's  advice,  and  "  never  speak 
of  a  person  unless  you  can  speak  well  of  him." 

46.  Sleep  and  Rest— When  do  we  sleep  ?  Why  ?  (Dark, 
and  can't  see  to  work  or  play.) 

In  what  position  ?    (Lying  down.) 
Why  is  sleep  needed  ?    (To  rest  and  refresh  us.) 
When  does  the  body  wear  out  fastest  ?     (While  work- 
ing.) 

When  will  it  build  up  fastest  ?    (When  asleep.) 
Why  will  not  rest  or  mere  cessation  from  activity  take 
the  place  of  sleep  ?    (Mind  active.) 

Are  dreams  helpful  ?     (No ;  show  mind  is  not  resting.) 
Why  is  it  best  to  lie  down  ?    (Easier  for  the  heart  to 
pump  blood.) 

Why  do  we  need  more  covering  when  asleep  ?  (Slow- 
moving  blood  and  slow  breathing  do  not  keep  the  body  so 
warm.) 

Do  you  know  of  any  reasons  for  the  old  saying,  "  Early 
to  bed  and  early  to  rise,  makes  a  man  healthy,  wealthy,  and 
wise  "  ? 

Is  night  air  as  healthy  as  day  air  ?  Have  you  ever  ob- 
served anything  to  support  your  idea  regarding  this  ? 


24:4  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Is  there  any  good  reason  for  the  custom  of  sleeping  up. 
stairs  ? 

Should  we  sleep  in  warm  rooms  ?    Why  not  ? 

Should  we  sleep  in  the  clothing  worn  during  the  day  ? 
Why  not  ? 

How  shall  we  best  ventilate  a  bedroom,  so  as  to  have 
fresh  air  but  no  draught  ?  (Raise  the  lower  sash  an  inch  or 
two,  and  slip  under  it  a  lath  or  strip  of  board  as  long  as  the 
window  is  wide.  This  closes  the  opening  at  the  bottom,  and 
permits  an  even  and  gentle  interchange  of  air  at  the  middle. 
Never  have  openings  on  opposite  sides  of  the  room  so  that 
a  wind  can  blow  across  the  bed.) 

What  is  the  object  of  rest  ?  (To  fit  ourselves  for  more 
work.) 

What  does  recreate  mean  ?    (Re-create — make  anew.) 

Is  recreation  which  keeps  us  up  late  at  night  and  leaves 
us  "  tired  out "  the  next  morning,  rightly  named  ? 

What  do  you  think  of  the  honesty  of  men  or  women, 
whose  time  is  paid  for  by  their  employer,  making  a  practice 
of  being  so  engaged  evenings  as  to  be  sleepy  and  "  used  up  " 
the  next  day  ? 

Does  a  student  need  much,  or  little,  sleep  ? 

Why  is  the  Sabbath  a  wise  provision  for  our  best  in- 
terests? (Because  people  need  frequently  to  lay  aside  en- 
tirely the  cares  and  business  of  every-day  life.)  * 

47.  Character. f— What  do  we  mean  by  character?  (What 
we  really  are.) 

What  do  you  understand  by  u  truthful "  ?  f 

48.  A  Baby. — What  is  a  very  young  child  called  ? 
Is  he  able  to  care  for  himself  ? 

*  Learn  Isaiah,  Iviii,  13, 14. 

t  Dwell  here  on  desirable  traits  only. 

\  Let  the  class  illustrate  from  their  own  experience ;  let  the  reading  and 
language  lessons  of  the  day  center  around  the  thought,  and  perhaps  read 
selections  to  the  class  which  shall  illustrate  the  power  and  beauty  of  truth 
in  all  things.  Then  take  up  other  terms  descriptive  of  character,  for  which 
gee  Character,  in  Step  V. 


STEP  XIX.— ANIMALS.  245 

Who  does  it  for  him  ? 

What  does  he  live  on  ?    (Milk.) 

How  long  does  it  take  him  to  get  fully  grown  ? 

What  sounds  does  a  baby  make  ? 

How  does  he  learn  to  talk  ?    (By  hearing  and  imitating.) 

How  does  he  learn  to  eat  at  the  table  ? 

How  does  he  learn  what  is  right  and  proper  to  do  ? 

If  he  have  a  bad  example  set  him — what  ? 

What  does  this  teach  us  regarding  our  conduct  before 
those  younger  ?  (Should  be  very  careful  to  speak  and  do 
right.) 

Is  a  baby  in  the  home  any  trouble  ? 

Is  it  worth  all  the  trouble  it  costs  ? 

Review. — None  is  needed. 

Material  to  put  away.— Care  for  any  bones,  teeth,  etc., 
which  may  have  been  gathered,  and  put  where  they  can  be 
had  for  the  next  class. 

Concluding  Remarks.— I  fully  realize  how  much  ground 
is  covered  in  this  step,  but  I  also  know  how  fruitful  of  good 
these  lessons  have  proved  as  an  introduction  to  physiology 
and  zoology,  as  well  as  stimulating  to  healthy  habits  of 
thought. 

The  next  step  in  Animals  is  XXVII — The  Boy  lessons 
concluded. 


STEP  XX. 
How  SHARP  STONES  CAME  TO  BE. 

[A  continuation  of  Pebbles — Step  XIV,  and  preparation  for  future  work.] 

Material— But  little  needed. 

Thirty  pieces  of  shale  or  limestone,  which  has  shown  a 
tendency  to  split  with  the  frost. 

Thirty  lumps  of  hard  clay,  size  of  hen's  egg  (such  as  is 
used  in  clay  modeling  will  do). 

Thirty  hickory  nuts,  walnuts,  or  peach  pits  which  have 
lain  out  all  winter  and  begun  to  split. 

A  piece  of  rock  showing  cracks. 

A  cracked  rock  with  a  root  which  has  grown  in  the  crack. 

A  piece  of  shale,  limestone,  or  even  tile,  which  has  been 
split  by  the  frost. 

Where  to  get  such  material  can  be  known  only  to  the 
teacher  who  has  looked  about,  but  the  children  will  usually 
be  able  to  gather  it,  and  the  cost  be  nothing. 

Preparation  of  Teacher.— Go  through  the  lessons  care- 
fully, trying  the  experiments  and  modifying  them  to  suit 
your  surroundings. 

Substitute  local  illustrations  for  those  given  as  far  as 
possible. 

The  Lessons.— 1.  Refer  back  to  the  pebbles  found  on 
beaches  and  in  brooks  (Step  XV). 

These  rounded  pebbles  were  once — what  ?    (Sharp  stones.) 

Made  pebbles  by  what  means  ?    (Moving  water.) 

How  did  I  get  the  pieces  of  sandstone  we  shook  in  a 
bottle  ?  (Broke  with  a  hammer.) 

LET  us  SEE  HOW  NATURE  MAKES  THEM. 

(346) 


STEP  XX.— SHARP  STONES.  247 

2.  Who  has  seen  piles  of  stone  where  a  foundation  was 
to  be  put  in  or  a  wall  built  ? 

What  do  we  call  the  piles  Nature  makes  ?  (Cliffs, 
ledges,  etc.) 

Before  to-morrow's  lesson  I  wish  you  all  to  take  a  careful 
look  at  these  piles  or  ledges,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  tell  me  what 
you  saw.  If  ledges  can't  be  found,  study  some  old  wall. 

Now,  who  can  tell  me  something  about  a  ledge  ?  (Draw 
out  ail  the  class  has  observed,  and  then  hold  up  a  stone  with 
cracks  started,  and  lead  them  to  notice  the  cracks.) 

3.  Have  the  class  examine  rocks  out  of  doors  and  tell  what 
the  seams  or  fissures  are  filled  with.     (Earth,  roots,  water.) 

4.  If  the  cracks  were  made  larger,  what  ?    (Try.) 
Are  these  pieces  sharp,  or  rounded  ? 

How  could  Nature  make  sharp  stones  ? 
Do  you  know  how  she  makes  the  fissures  larger  ?  (Roots, 
frost,  etc.) 

5.  Yes.    Roots  do  grow  and  burst  stones. 
(Tell  of  examples,  or  find  and  show,  if  possib]e.) 

(See  Boy  Travelers  in  South  America,  p.  67,  for  a  good 
illustration  and  account  of  the  way  roots  tear  down  walls  in 
the  tropics.  Find  the  place  on  the  map  and  read  to  the  class. 
Further  and  very  helpful  illustrations  will  be  found  in  the 
wonderful  History  of  a  Squash  in  Harness,  which,  in  grow- 
ing, raised  J^flOO  pounds,  and  carried  5,000  for  several  days, 
till  the  apparatus  broke!)  * 

Other  examples  there  given  of  seeds,  mushrooms,  and 
roots  should  be  talked  of,  if  the  children  do  not  suggest 
them. 

How  can  a  root  burst  a  rock  ?    (By  growing.) 

Will  the  root  be  tight,  or  loose,  in  the  crack  ? 

Drive  a  long  stake  a  foot  in  the  ground  and  move  it  a  few 
times,  as  the  wind  sways  a  tree. 

What  other  great  use  from  these  roots  expanding  in  the 

*  See  Observations  on  the  Phenomena  of  Plant  Life,  by  President  W.  S. 
Clarke,  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. 


248  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

cracks  of  earth  and  rock  ?    (Keeps  roots  tight,  to  hold  the 
plant  in  place.) 

6.  But  there  are  other  ways  of  rending  bodies  asunder. 
Here  are  some  nuts  which  lay  outdoors  all  winter.    What 

do  you  notice  ?    (Split  open.) 

Water  pipes  often  burst  in  winter.     What  is  the  cause  ? 

A  fence  that  I  used  to  know  was  set  in  wet  clay  ground, 
and  year  by  year  was  lifted  higher  and  higher,  till  it  fell 
over.  What  made  it  rise  ?  (When  the  surface  of  the  wet 
ground  froze  it  expanded  and  lifted  the  post,  which  was  not 
frozen  fast  below ;  mud  getting  under  the  end,  it  could  not 
settle  back  into  place  when  the  ground  thawed.  This,  re- 
peated year  after  year,  lifted  the  posts  so  nearly  out  that  the 
fence  fell.) 

Sometimes  a  barrel  of  rain  water  freezes  when  full.  What 
happens  ?  (Bursts  or  bulges  up  in  the  center.) 

Let  us  consider  why  these  things  happen. 

7.  Why  freezing  water  bursts  things. 

Here  are  some  bits  of  rock  candy  and  rock  salt  for  each 
of  you  to  look  at.  (I  think  you  all  have  learned  enough 
self-control  not  to  eat  them  without  permission.) 

What  do  you  see  about  them  ?  (Smooth  faces  and  straight 
edges.) 

Does  any  one  know  how  they  came  to  be  so  ?  (Grew  or 
formed  themselves.) 

Yes ;  they  were  not  cut  or  ground  into  shape,  but  simply 
"grew." 

Did  you  ever  notice  what  beautiful  things  snowflakes 
are  ?  (Class  draw  some.) 

We  call  these  regularly  shaped  pieces  of  ice  or  sugar  or 
salt,  crystals. 

When  these  crystals  fall  lightly  from  the  sky  we  say 
it—  ?  (Snows.) 

If  warmed,  the  snow—  ?    (Melts.) 

Which  takes  up  the  most  room — snow,  or  water  ? 

Try,  by  filling  a  pail  with  dry  snow,  tamping  it  full  and 
solid  ;  then,  when  melted,  let  the  class  decide.  Popcorn, 


STEP  XX.— SHARP  STONES.  249 

measured  before  and  after  popping,  makes  a  good  illustra- 
tion. 

Why  does  the  snow  take  more  room  ?  (Don't  fit  together 
well.) 

Why  the  water  less  room  ?    (Little  drops  fit  together.) 

Take  a  basin  of  ice-cold  water  (no  ice  in  it),  and,  putting 
it  out  in  the  cold,  see  it  freeze,  being  careful  not  to  breathe 
on  it. 

Those  frosty,  fernlike  things  you  saw  growing  out  from 
the  sides  and  running  together  were  crystals  of  ice. 

Did  you  ever  see  these  crystals  elsewhere  ?  (Frost  on 
window  panes,  under  "  shell  ice,"  or  when  dew  freezes.) 

Ice  is  all  made  up  of  these  crystals.  Explain  to  me  why 
it  pushes  when  freezing.  (Crystals  must  have  room  to 
grow.) 

8.  To  show  how  hard  the  water  pushes  when  freezing, 
let  me  tell  of  a  French  officer  who  once  took  a  bombshell  of 
thick,  strong  iron,  and  filling  it  with  water,  screwed  an  iron 
plug  into  the  hole,  and  put  it  out  in  the  cold.  The  tiny  drops 
or  molecules  began  to  get  cold,  and  wanted  to  arrange  them- 
selves in  crystals,  but  the  strong  iron  would  not  give  them 
room.  As  they  got  colder  and  colder  in  the  long  Canadian 
night,  they  kept  trying  harder  and  harder,  till  at  last  the  iron 
walls  gave  way;  but  so  quickly  did  every  little  molecule- 
spring  to  its  place  to  make  crystals  of  ice  that  not  a  drop 
spilled,  although  some  did  get  an  inch  or  so  beyond  the  crack 
before  it  froze.  Try  with  a  soda-water  bottle  and  see  if  the 
ice  fills  the  fissures  between  the  edges  of  broken  glass. 

Here,  again  (as  in  the  root  growth),  it  is  the  united  strength 
of  millions  of  little  things  which  can  accomplish  so  much. 
One  little  molecule  could  never  break  a  strong  iron  shell, 
but  when  all  united  in  their  efforts  to  get  room  to  form  crys- 
tals of  ice,  the  iron  ripped  like  a  paper  bag. 

Now  explain  fully  the  cracked  nuts. 

The  burst  water  pipes. 

The  lifted  fence. 

The  bulged  and  burst  bomb. 


250  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

9.  Can  you  tell  me  of  any  other  things  which  freezing 
water  has  burst  or  broken  ? 

(Encourage  each  to  tell  of  one  thing  and  explain  it  if  he 
can ;  otherwise  discuss  it  with  the  class  till  it  is  understood. 
Also  encourage  the  devising  of  experimental  tests  to  be  car- 
ried out  by  the  pupil.) 

If  desired,  the  following  illustrations  can  be  given  : 

I  have  seen  what  was  a  lump  of  hard  clay  in  the  fall 
crumbling  like  cornmeal  in  the  spring.  What  caused  it  ? 
Soak  lumps  of  clay,  and  freeze,  to  test  this. 

If  you  brush  the  side  of  a  sandstone  house  in  the  spring, 
many  sand  grains  come  off.  Why  ? 

I  have  seen  pieces  of  solid  shale  thrown  out  of  a  well  or 
ditch  in  the  fall,  and  in  the  spring  they  were  split  into  layers. 
What  did  it  ?  Soak  pieces  of  shale  and  put  out  to  freeze. 
Thaw  in  water,  and  if  not  cracked  freeze  again,  and  so  on 
till  you  succeed. 

Small  ponds  often  have  wall-like  banks  of  earth  in  low 
places,  and  the  steeper  banks  covered  more  or  less  with 
stones.  Who  do  you  suppose  took  the  trouble  to  do  all  this 
work  ?  (Ice.) 

Yes ;  freezing  water  did  it  all. 

What  experiment  can  we  try  which  will  prove  it  ?  (Bot- 
tle full  of  water  out  in  the  cold.  Cracked  stone  soaked  in 
water  and  frozen.) 

What  has  this  to  do  with  sharp  stones  ? 

10.  Review. — Kocks  have  cracks  or  seams. 
Seams  are  filled  with  earth,  water,  and  roots. 

(1)  Boots  exert  great  force— 

"  Squash  in  harness." 
Boots  in  tropics. 

Sidewalks  lifted  and  walls  overturned. 
This  expanding  holds  plants  tightly  in  place. 

(2)  Water  bursts  things  when  it  freezes — 

Nuts  opened. 
Water  pipes. 
Tilted  sidewalks. 


STEP  XX.— SHARP  STONES.  251 

Walled  ponds. 
Clay  and  shale,  stone,  etc. 
Experiments  to  show  this  is  done  by  freezing. 
Why  water  pushes. 
Examples :  Snow. 
Bombshell. 
Soda-water  bottle. 

11.  Examine  as  in  pebbles  (Step  XV,  23). 
School  collection  to  illustrate  sharp  stones — 

1.  Cracked  rock,  the  seam  full  of  earth. 

2.  Fissure  with  root  in  it. 

3.  Crystals  of  candy  and  salt. 

4.  Models  or  drawings  of  snow  crystals. 

5.  Bottle  of  popcorn  and  same  measure  popped. 

6.  Fragments  of  burst  bottle,  etc. 

7.  Split  shale. 

8.  Split  nuts  or  peach  stones. 

9.  Crumbled  clay. 

10.  Sand  from  house  or  wall. 

11.  Model  (clay)  of  "walled  pond." 

Number  these  as  suggested  in  Step  XIV,  and  also  add 
plain  labels. 

Time  required — 20  to  25  brisk  lessons. 
Next  step  XXI — Plane  Form  and  Color. 


STEP  XXL— PLANE  FORM  AND  COLOR. 

Object. — In  trying  to  teach  something  about  flowers, 
minerals,  and  other  natural  objects,  I  found  such  a  deplor- 
able ignorance  and  confusion  of  terms  regarding  both  form 
and  color  that  I  was  obliged  to  teach  something  of  these 
before  proceeding  with  other  work. 

While  doing  this  I  also  added  some  knowledge  of  the 
use  of  drawing  tools  and  the  beautiful  metric  system  of 
measure,  which  would  be  a  boon  to  the  world  if  universally 
adopted. 

These  weights  and  measures  were  used  in  all  subsequent 
work,  and  will  hereafter,  in  most  cases,  be  so  employed  in 
this  book.  While  I  fully  recognize  the  fact  that  the  great 
advances  in  material  and  methods  for  early  training  in  form 
and  color  have  in  a  measure  rendered  these  lessons  needless, 
I  feel  that  the  necessity  will  still  exist  in  many  cases,  and  the 
use  of  tools  and  the  metric  system  in  nearly  all ;  hence  I 
shall  give  in  this  step  such  suggestions  as  I  have  tried  and 
found  to  answer  the  ends  in  view,  which  are,  briefly — 

1.  To  give  clear  concepts  of  form  and  color  for  future 
work. 

2.  To  train  the  eye  and  hand  in  use  of  tools  and  colors. 

3.  To  familiarize  with  the  metric  system  of  measure  and 
weight. 

Time. — In  late  winter  or  early  spring,  as  no  out-of-door 
work  is  pressing,  and  the  light  is  good. 

Some  20  lessons  of  30  minutes  each. 

Much  of  the  work  is  in  a  degree  inventive,  and  when  a 
pupil  gets  into  the  spirit  of  the  work  he  should  not  be  com- 
pelled to  break  off  too  soon. 

(262) 


STEP  XXI.— PLANE   FORM   AND   COLOR.  253 

Material — For  each  pupil  have  the  following — 

A  good,  hard  pencil  (H.  Faber),  cost 5  cents. 

A  30-centimetre  boxwood  rule  (Faber)  cost. ...     15      " 
A  pair  of  pencil-pointed  compasses  ("  Pen  and 

Pencil"),  cost 25     " 

A  box  of  good  water  colors.  Box  of  8  good 
colors,  including  carmine,  orange,  chrome, 
chrome  yellow,  emerald  green,  cobalt  blue, 
and  a  good  violet,  with  brushes,  will  cost . .  75  " 
A  large  envelope  (for  protection)  and  24  sheets 
of  best  drawing  paper  (150  x  130  milli- 
metres in  size),  cost 5  " 

Some  small  pencils  to  fit  the  compasses  should  be  had 
with  them  at  no  extra  cost. 

Each  pupil  should  have  the  same  outfit  (except  com- 
passes), and  if  purchased  by  the  dozen  quite  a  reduction  can 
be  saved  on  the  above  prices. 

India-rubber  erasers  will  be  needed  at  times;  but  from 
the  start  train  the  class  to  such  exact,  careful  work  that  the 
erasing  of  a  line  will  seldom  occur.  It  can  be  done  by  wise 
handling,  and  its  moral  effects  are  even  more  valuable  than 
the  hand  training. 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher.— But  little  is  needed.  I 
would  advise — 

1.  A  careful  study  of  the  class  to  be  taught. 

2.  A  written  estimate  of  their  needs  and  the  ends  to  be 
accomplished. 

3.  The  doing  by  the  teacher  of  everything  (in  order)  that 
the  class  is  to  do. 

4.  The  lessons  given. 

As  to  books,  my  information  was  originally  gathered  from 
a  variety  of  books  and  then  tested  by  experiment  till  I  found 
what  I  wanted.  At  present  there  is  quite  an  available  lit- 
erature, among  which  I  should  still  keep  my  old  and  tried 
friend,  William  George  Spencer's  Inventional  Geometry — 
one  of  the  Science  Primers — and  add  Color  in  the  School- 
room (Bradley). 


254  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

The  Lessons. — The  work  that  has  been  done  along  these 
lines  is  indicated  under  Color,  Form,  Drawing,  etc.,  in  the 
chart  at  the  beginning  of  this  volume.  The  child  is  now  of 
an  age  when  the  muscles  of  the  hand  have  the  strength,  and 
the  mind  the  ability,  to  do  more  exact  work. 

1st.  Give  pencils,  and  teach  how  to  sharpen  with  a  flat 
point. 

2d.  Metric  rules  given,  marked  with  owner's  name,  and  ex- 
plained. Tell  the  pupils  of  the  great  need  which  existed  of 
some  uniform  system  of  weights  and  measures.  Illustrations 
can  be  gathered  from  commercial  transactions  or  customs. 

In  1791  the  French  took  steps  to  have  some  standard 
which  could  not  be  lost,  and  eminent  scientists  decided  to 
take  the  forty-millionth  part  of  a  great  circle  of  the  earth. 
The  earth  was  considered  to  be  spheroid,  and  wise  men  were 
set  to  work  to  carefully  measure  10°  of  the  360°  of  a  great 
circle  running  through  the  poles  clear  around  the  earth. 
Being  Frenchmen,  they  chose  the  meridian  of  Paris,  and, 
beginning  at  Dunkirk,  in  the  northern  extremity  of  France, 
measured  straight  south  to  Barcelona,  in  Spain,  nearly  700 
miles.  From  this  arc  of  10°  the  length  of  360°  was  figured, 
and  one  forty  millionth  part  of  it — called  a  "  metre  "  (meas- 
ure)— was  found  to  be  39*37  of  our  inches. 

The  metre  was  divided  into  10's  (decimetres),  these  again 
into  10's  (centimetres),  and  these  100's  into  10's,  called  milli- 
metres. 

Let  us  write  this  table  and  compare  it  with  United  States 
money : 

10  Mills    =  1  Cent  (ct.)     10  Millimetres  (mm.)  =  1  Centimetre  (cm.) 
10  Cents  =  1  Dime  10  Centimetres  =  1  Decimetre  (dm.) 

10  Dimes  =  1  Dollar  ($)    10  Decimetres  =  1  Metre  (m.) 

Would  it  not  be  splendid  if  such  a  simple  measure  could 
take  the  place  of  our  inches,  feet,  yards,  rods,  etc. ! 

Some  of  our  coins  are  made  by  these  metric  measures. 
Let  us  test  some  with  our  rules.  (The  "nickel"  is  2  cm. 
wide  and  2  mm.  thick.) 


STEP  XXI.— PLANE  FORM  AND   COLOR.  255 

All  come  to  the  next  lesson  with  very  clean  hands. 

3d.  Are  the  hands  clean  ? 

Here  is  some  paper  to  draw  on.  Do  not  use  it  for  any- 
thing except  these  lessons,  and  always  put  it  hack  in  the 
envelope  when  not  in  use,  to  keep  it  clean. 

How  long  are  the  sheets  ?    How  wide  ? 

What  do  they  measure  from  corner  to  corner  ? 

Let  us  draw  Card  1. 


Bed 


Green 


Violet 


Blue 


Card  1. 

Place  the  sheet  with  its  length  from  left  to  right. 
Place  a  "  1 "  neatly  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner. 
All  cards  are  to  he  numbered  in  that  place. 
See !    I  have  outlined  an  enlarged  card  (make  it  just  ten 
times  larger,  and  use  centimetres  instead  of  millimetres  in 


256 


SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


your  measurements  on  the  board)  and  will  do  just  what  I 
want  you  to  do. 

(1)  Measure  5  mm.  down  from  the  upper  edge  and  place 
a  light  dot. 

(2)  Do  this  again  near  the  other  end  of  the  upper  edge. 

(3)  Lay  your  rulers  below  and  the  width  of  a  pencil  point 
away  from  these  dots,  with  the  10-cm.  mark  exactly  at  the 
left-hand  edge  of  the  paper. 

Is  the  marked  edge  of  the  rule  toward  and  parallel  with 
the  upper  edge  of  the  paper  ?    If  so,  all  right. 

(4)  Holding  the  rule  firmly,  so  that  it  shall  not  slip,  begin 
at  the  12-cm.  mark  on  the  left  and  draw  a  neat  line  to  the 
23-cm.  mark  on  the  right.     Letter  the  line  A  C. 

How  many  cm.  from  each  end  to  the  edge  of  card  ?    (2.) 


150  O 


H 


M 


Card  2. 

(5)  Measure  in  from  each  end,  near  the  bottom  of  the 
card,  2  cm.  and  mark. 


STEP  XXI.— PLANE   FORM   AND   COLOR.  257 

(6)  From  A  draw  an  up-and-down  line  12  cm.  long  and 
parallel  to  the  left  edge  of  the  paper.     Place  B  at  the  lower 
end. 

(7)  From  C  draw  a  12-cm.  line  parallel  to  the  right  edge. 
Letter  it  D. 

(8)  On  A  B  and  C  D  lay  off  2  cm.  lengths  from  the  top 
down. 

Is  the  last  space  exactly  2  cm.?    If  so,  your  work  is 
right. 

(9)  Connect  the  points  on  each  side  by  lines  parallel  to 
A  C  and  ending  exactly  at  the  two  perpendiculars,  A  B  and 
CD. 

4th.— Draw  Card  2.    (1)  Measure  paper. 

(2)  Draw  exactly  from  corner  to  corner  the  diagonals 
ABandCD. 

(3)  From  hoth  top  and  hottom  edges,  close  to  the  ends, 
mark  15,  and  then  10  mm. 

(4)  Lay  ruler  by  the  dots  15  mm.  from  the  top  (being 
careful  to  allow  for  the  thickness  of  the  pencil  point),  and 
draw  along  the  ruler  from  one  diagonal  to  another.     Letter 
this  line  E  F. 

Is  it  exactly  15  mm.  from  the  upper  edge  ?    If  not,  all 
that  follows  will  come  wrong. 

(5)  Parallel  with  EF  draw  GH,  just  in  line  with  the 
10-mm.  dots. 

(6)  At  the  bottom,  in  the  same  way,  draw  L  M  and  I K. 
See  if  they  are  right. 

(7)  Connect  by  neat  and  exact  lines  E  to  I,  G  to  L,  H  to 
M,  and  F  to  K. 

(8)  Find  the  exact  middle  of  AC  and  draw  from  there, 
through  the  center,  N  O. 

(9)  Find  the  exact  middle  of  A  D,  and  from  there  draw 
through  the  center  P  Q. 

(10)  Now  measure  all  16  lines  (counting  each  half  of  a 
diagonal  or  cross  line  as  one)  and  record  the  lengths  in  cm. 
or  mm.    This  will  test  your  work. 

5th.  Draw  Card  3. 
19 


258 


SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 


This  shows  the  proportion  in  which  the  six  principal 
colors  are  blended  in  white  light. 


Red 

1 

1 

i: 
^-i 

Green 

Blue 

Violet 

6     a  16  25 

Card  3. — Spectrum  colors. 

This  will  introduce  mm.  measurements ;  and  as  it  is  to  be 
colored,  no  erasing  should  be  done,  and  the  lines  should  be 
very  light,  so  as  to  practically  disappear  when  the  color  is  on. 

6th.  Draw  Card  4.— Angles. 


H 


Card  4. — Angles. 


This  introduces  the  3  kinds  of  angles. 

(1)  Draw  the  3  base  lines,  B  C,  E  F,  and  H  I. 

(2)  A  B  can  be  made  perpendicular  to  B  C  by  the  end  of 
the  paper. 

Prove  its  correctness  by  measuring  from  A  to  C,  which 
should  be  5  cm. 

(3)  Draw  D  E,  making  the  angle  larger  than  the  right 
angle. 

(4)  Draw  G  H,  making  the  angle  less  than  the  right 
angle. 

(5)  Write  the  name  of  each  angle  neatly  in  it,  and  con- 
struct a  key.     r  =  right  angle  ;  o  =  obtuse  ;  a  =  acute. 

Hereafter  an  angle  marked  with  an  "r"  is  a—  ?  (Eight 
angle.)  If  with  an  "o"  ?  (Is  obtuse.)  If  with  an  "a"  ? 
(Is  acute.) 


STEP   XXI.— PLANE  FORM   AND  COLOR. 


259 


7th.  Review  angles.    Draw  Card  5. — Triangles. 

(1)  Draw  base  lines  first. 

(2)  All  things  considered,  would  not  introduce  the  com- 
passes here. 

D 


Card  5. — Triangles. 

Let  each  child  find  the  middle  of  the  bases  of  the  equi- 
lateral and  isosceles  triangles,  and  erect  indefinite  perpendic- 
ulars (light  lines),  to  aid  in  constructing  the  triangles. 

(3)  Complete  and  name  the  triangles. 

(4)  Measure  all  sides,  and  write  lengths  in  cm.  or  mm. 

(5)  Write  in  the  ua's,"  "o's,"  and  "r's,"  to  show  what 
kind  of  angles. 

(6)  Discuss  differences  and  important  points  till  the  class 
has  mastered  triangles  and  knows  the  angles  and  relative 
length  of  side  (where  essential)  of  each. 


SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 


Card  6.— Quadrilaterals. 


8th.  Review 
triangles.  Draw 
Card  6.— Quadri- 
laterals. 

(1)  Locate    all 
base  lines. 

(2)  Make    per- 
pendiculars paral- 
lel    to     ends     of 
paper    and     each 
other.* 

(3)  Draw     the 
right  -  hand      side 
of    the    rhomboid 
first,  and  then  the 
other  and  sides  of 
rhombus     parallel 
to  it. 

(4)  Letter  and 
write     in    names, 
and  prove  correct- 
ness by  measuring 
opposite  sides. 

(5)  Discuss  pe- 
culiarities and  dif- 
ferences   till    the 
class    knows    the 
figures    well    and 
can      tell      about 
them      or      draw 
from  memory. 

9th.        Review 


*  Untold  trouble  will  come  from  badly  cut  paper ;  but  I  never  found 
but  one  package  which  was  over  %  mm.  out  of  the  way.  Still,  in  ordering, 
state  that  you  wish  it  cut  as  accurately  as  folding  paper,  so  that  the  sides 
can  be  depended  on  to  be  parallel. 


STEP  XXL— PLANE   FORM   AND   COLOR. 


261 


quadrilaterals  of  Card  6,  and  draw  Card  7.  —  Quadri- 
laterals. 

Proceed  as  with  Card  6. 

Compare  the  six  figures  of  Cards  5  and  6,  and  thoroughly 
learn  the  differences. 


Tr&pezvid 


Card  7.— Quadrilaterals. 


10.  Review  all  quadrilaterals.     Draw  Card  8,— Angles 
with  two  lines. 


262 


SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 


Card  8.— Angles  with  two  lines. 


(1)  Draw  base  lines  as  given. 

(2)  Practice  with  the  children  (on  the  board)  till  they 
understand,  and  then  let  them  use  their  own  mode  of  making 
the  angles. 

llth.  How  many  angles  can  you  make  with  3  lines  f 
Draw  Card  9. 

(1)  Eleven  base  lines  drawn  and  numbered  below. 


10  12 

Card  9. — Angles  with  three  lines. 


STEP  XXI.— PLANE  FORM  AND  COLOR. 


263 


(2)  Pupils  work  from  2  (fewest)  up,  using  their  own  de- 
vices and  leaving"  any  they  can  not  think  of  blank. 

(3)  Go  over  it  in  detail  with  the  class,  encouraging  those 
needing  help  to  make  original  arrangements  of  their  own. 
I  have  practiced  drawing  little  arcs  ahout  the  angles  and 
coloring  in  contrasted  colors  to  make  the  counting  easy.     If 
this  is  not  desirable,  let  the  pupils  place  small  and  neat  num- 
bers in  each  angle  from  1  up. 

12th.  How  many  angles  can  be  made  with  4  straight 
lines  ? 

Draw  Cards  10  and  11. 

(1)  Base  lines  drawn  and  numbered  below;  eleven  on 
Card  10  and  ten  on  Card  11. 

(2)  Angles  of  10  devised  and  neatly  drawn.    Aid  as  little 
as  possible. 


ID 


10 


13 


Card  10. — Angles  with  four  lines. 


264 


SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 


(3)  Angles  of  11  devised  and  neatly  drawn.    Aid  as  little 
as  possible. 

(4)  Comparison  and  correction  of  work. 


21 


22 

Card  11. — Angles  with  four  lines. 


13th.  Coloring,  as  a  change  of  work  and  review. 

(1)  After  marking  with  name  of  owner  and  explaining 
use  of  box,  etc.,  all  transfer  some  yellow  to  the  upper  right- 
hand  mixing  tray.  Having  enough  evenly  mixed  color  for 
the  third  space  from  the  top  on  Card  1,  proceed  to  give  it  an 
even  wash,  seeing  that  the  pupils  do  it  in  the  correct  man- 
ner, with  gently  sloped  paper,  full  brush,  etc.  I  have  chosen 
yellow  to  begin  with,  as  the  errors  are  less  noticeable  and 
the  pupils  will  have  a  little  experience  before  they  begin  to 
lay  on  heavy  colors.  Card  2, 1  have  never  colored. 


STEP  XXL— PLANE  FORM  AND   COLOR.  265 

(2)  Now  color  the  yellow  space  in  Card  3  and  one  figure 
on  5  and  6. 

(3)  If  it  is  decided  to  color  the  angles  of  cards  8  to  11, 
little  arcs  and  circles  must  first  be  lightly  drawn.     This  can 
be  done  by  small  coins,  metal  buttons,  etc.,  or  the  dividers 
can  be  given  and  explained.     I  have  tried  to  adopt  some 
standard  radius,  but  found  the  circles  to  intersect  so  often  as 
to  require  the  use  of  a  wide  discretion  instead. 

(4)  Some  instruction  in  the  harmony  of  colors  should 
also  precede  the  coloring. 

This  I  should  not  attempt  here  beyond  leading  the  class 
to  observe  the  relative  amounts  of  each  color  in  the  spectrum 
and  talking  of  Nature's  combinations,  which  we  admire. 

The  rule  we  evolve  is  this : 

Angles.  Color  to  use. 

Right  (r),  if  one  pair.        Red  and  green,  orange  and  blue  or 

yellow  and  violet. 
Right  (r),  if  two  pairs.      Like  single  pair,  but  alternating 

the  colors. 

Obtuse  (o).  Blue. 

Very  obtuse.  Violet. 

Acute  (a).  Orange. 

Very  acute.  Yellow. 

Solitary.  Green. 

This  plan  has  given  satisfactory  results,  it  being,  however, 
understood  that  there  was  to  be  no  massing  of  colors,  but  as 
far  as  possible  a  pleasing  contrast  and  change,  even  in  the 
adjacent  parts  of  two  figures. 

(5)  Having  given  the  above  help,  leave  the  pupils  to  work 
out  their  own  ideas  as  they  may  find  time  and  return  to 
Card  1.    Mix  some  green  in  lower  left-hand  mixing  pan,  and 
color  the  space  just  above  the  yellow  in  1;  also  space  on  3, 
triangle  on  5,  and  one  figure  on  6  or  7. 

(7)  So  proceed  till  all  are  done. 

The  colors  in  the  mixing  spaces  of  the  color-box  cover 
should  be  in  the  order  of  the  spectrum — red,  orange,  and 


SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


yellow  above,  and  green,  blue,  violet  below.  The  colors  on 
Card  1  will  be  contrasted  and  heaviest  on  the  top  and  bot- 
tom, shading  into  quieter  colors  at  the  middle.  This  will 
have  given  practice  in  color  enough  for  the  present,  so  re- 
turn to  the  drawing. 

14th.  Draw  Card  12. — Straight,  broken,  and  curved  lines. 


Card  12. — Lines  and  rainbow  colors. 

(1)  Draw  straight  line  and  lay  off  distances  on  one  side 
of  center. 

(2)  Draw  broken  line  (class  make  their  own  device). 

(3)  Explain  use  of  compass,  and  draw  semicircles. 

(4)  Discuss  till  all  new  terms  are  understood. 
15th.  Draw  Card  13. — Center  and  circumference. 

16th.  Review  13  and  draw  Card  14.—  Diameter,  radius, 
arc,  chord,  etc.  Measure  and  record  lengths. 

17th.  Review  14  and  draw  Card  15. — Proportion  of  colors 
in  spectrum. 


STEP  XXI.— PLANE   FORM  AND   COLOR.  267 


Card  13. — Circle. 

a 


J> 
Card  14. 


268  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

(1)  Draw  circle. 

(2)  Make  a  dot  on  circumference,  and,  taking  one  chord 
after  another  from  the  rule,  measure  them  off  around  the 

circle. 

R 


B 

Card  15. — The  proportion  of  the  colors  in  white  light. 

(3)  Draw  radii  and  write  table  of  degrees,  etc.,  in  upper 
left-hand  corner.     How  many  degrees  (°)  in  a  circle  ? 
18th.  Draw  Card  16.— Square. 

(1)  Draw  circle. 

(2)  Draw  two  diameters  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

(3)  Connect  extremities  of  diameters. 

(4)  Test  accuracy  by  measuring. 
19th.  Draw  hexagon  (Card  17). 

(1)  Draw  circle. 

(2)  Lay  off  radius  as  a  chord  6  times  on  circumference. 

(3)  Connect  points  made  with  great  care. 

(4)  Test  by  measuring.    All  six  sides  should  be  equal. 


STEP  XXL— PLANE  FORM   AND   COLOR. 


269 


Card  16. — Square. 


Card  17.— Hexagon. 


270  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

20th.  Review  angles,  triangles,  quadrilaterals,  and  circle. 

Class  combine  straight  and  curved  lines  in  an  "in- 
vention." 

21st.  Color  Cards  12-15  and  the  invention.  The  others 
look  neatest  as  they  are. 

22d.  This  completes  the  work  undertaken,  but  classes 
have  often  done  beautiful  work  afterward  in  making  de- 


Card  18. 

signs,  flags,  etc.,  which  were  pinned  up  around  the  room. 
This,  of  course,  took  no  school  time,  but  being  permitted  as 
a  reward  for  good  work,  tended  to  cultivate  the  steady  ap- 
plication so  much  to  be  desired. 

The  interest  in  this  work  has  never  flagged,  and  if  pushed 
vigorously — not  hurry,  but  something  definite  done  each 
day — the  time  taken  is  greatly  disproportionate  to  the  direc- 


STEP   XXL— PLANE   FORM   AND   COLOR.  271 

tions  I  have  given,  and  20  lessons  of  30  minutes  each  will 
easily  complete  them. 

Material  put  away. — If  the  drawing  instruments,  etc., 
belong  to  the  school  they  must,  of  course,  be  safely  guarded ; 
but  they  should  belong  to  the  pupils. 

Have  some  blank  receipts  made,  and  encourage  the  pupils 
to  bring  such  things  as  they  may  not  be  using  to  you  for 
safe  keeping,  they  to  have  a  receipt  for  the  same. 

The  rules  are  especially  apt  to  get  nicked,  and  need  care 
in  using  if  for  everyday  work. 


STEP  XXII.— THE  SKIES. 
THE  EARTH.— (Continued.) 

The  Lessons. — A  brief  review  of  the  daily  motion  of  the 
earth. 

What  does  this  turning1  on  its  axis  give  us  ?  (Day  and 
night;  makes  the  sun  and  moon  seem  to  rise  and  set  and  the 
stars  appear  to  change  their  places.) 

What  ideas  are  suggested  to  you  by  the  word  Spring  ? 
Summer?  Autumn?  Winter?  Year? 

At  the  north  pole  the  people  are  said  to  have  six  months 
of  day  and  six  months  of  night.  How  is  it  with  our  days 
and  nights  ?  (Vary  in  length.) 

When  is  our  longest  day  ?    (June  22d.) 

Longest  night  ?    (December  22d.) 

Does  the  sun  always  seem  to  rise  in  the  same  place — over 
the  same  tree,  or  house,  or  hill  ?  (No.) 

When  does  he  rise  most  to  the  south  ?    (December  22d.) 

When  is  he  most  nearly  overhead  at  noon  ?    (June  22d.) 

When  does  the  sun  shine  farthest  into  a  south  window  ? 
(December.) 

Why,  in  Step  XVI,  did  we  have  to  see  the  Sickle  early 
in  May  ?  (Later  on  it  sets  before  dark.) 

If  you  watch  the  stars  when  you  go  to  bed  each  night,  do 
you  see  the  same  ones  month  after  month  ? 

How  long  do  you  think  it  would  be  before  the  same  con- 
stellation appears  again  at  the  same  hour  ?  (One  year.) 

These  are  some  of  the  things  the  peoples  of  the  East  had 
to  puzzle  over.  Living  so  much  out  of  doors,  and  often  un- 
der the  cloudless  skies  of  the  rainless  regions  of  Arabia  and 
Egypt,  they  observed  these  things,  but  had  to  think  much 
before  they  got  at  the  true  answer. 

(272) 


STEP  XXII.— THE  SKIES.  273 

Let  us  try  some  experiments  which  will  help  us.  (See 
Astronomy  Primer,  pp.  19-39.) 

1.  Hang  pictures,  or,  by  preference,  diagrams  of  the  12 
constellations  of  the  zodiac,  around  the  room.* 

Place  a  lamp  at  the  center,  and,  with  a  large  tack  to  rep- 
resent a  person  on  the  globe,  consider  what  must  happen  to 
bring  into  view  the  successive  constellations.  (Must  move 
around  the  sun.) 

2.  Let  the  class  learn  the  names  and  order  of  these  12 
constellations.     (See  list  at  end  of  this  step.)    These  were 
all  well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  observed  to  follow  each 
other  (rise  and  set)  in  this  order. 

Which  way  does  the  earth  then  travel  ?  (Against  the 
hands  of  a  watch.) 

How  long  is  it  before  we  see  the  same  group  of  stars 
again  ?  (One  year.) 

3.  See  if  any  arrangement  of  the  globe  can  be  suggested 
by  the  class  which  will  enable  the  unequal  days  and  nights, 
the  seeming  approach  and  retreat  of  the  sun,  and  the  vary- 
ing angle  of  its  beams,  to  be  illustrated  or  explained. 

Many  of  them  will  have  a  vague  idea  of  the  inclination 
of  the  axis  and  will  strive  to  express  it. 

When  the  idea  is  once  before  the  class,  the  globe  can  be 
given  the  needed  inclination  (23J°)  and  the  matter  taken  up 
in  detail. 

The  ecliptic  is  well  illustrated  by  Lockyer's  balls  float- 
ing on  the  surface  of  water  (page  24,  Primer). 

What  stars  would  be  around  the  circle  made  by  the 
water  ?  (Constellations  of  the  zodiac.) 

Unequal  days  and  nights  are  also  shown  in  the  same  way, 
and  afterward  with  the  lamp  and  globe  (Primer,  pp.  26-33). 

The  six  months  day  and  night  of  the  poles  will  be  seen 
on  the  globe.  Call  attention  to  the  arctic  and  antarctic 
circles  which  mark  the  extreme  limit  around  each  pole, 
of  the  region  where  the  days  or  nights  sometimes  last  24 

*  Enlarge  those  of  this  book. 
20 


274:  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

hours — i.  e.,  the  sun  at  one  time  does  not  come  into  sight  at 
all,  and  at  other  times  does  not  set.  (Read  Bayard  Taylor, 
or  other  writer,  on  the  Midnight  Sun.) 

Are  these  circles  real  or  only  imaginary  ? 

There  are  other  circles  on  the  globe  which  mark  other 
points  of  the  sun's  light.  When  he  shines  clear  beyond  the 
north  pole,  so  that  all  the  Eskimos  within  the  arctic  circle 
have  no  night,  he  is  directly  overhead  to  all  who  live  on  a 
circle  231°  north  of  the  equator.  Then  he  gets  lower  and 
lower  to  the  Eskimos,  till  he  seems  from  the  north  pole  to 
go  around  in  a  circle  on  the  horizon,  and  the  days  and  nights 
become  equal  all  over  the  earth;  the  sun  is  directly  overhead 
to  those  living  on  the  equator — a  great  circle  running  east 
and  west  around  the  earth,  midway  between  the  poles. 

The  earth  now  continues  on  its  journey,  the  north  pole 
turning  more  and  more  away  from  the  sun,  till  the  Eski- 
mos within  the  arctic  circle  have  nights  of  24  hours  and 
the  people  along  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  see  the  sun  directly 
overhead. 

How  about  the  nights  in  the  antarctic  circle  then  ?  (None.) 

Latitude. — Measure  on  a  map  the  distances  between  the 
poles  and  arctic  circles  in  both  hemispheres. 

What  do  you  notice  about  them  ?  (Everywhere  equally 
distant  from  each  other.) 

Now  test  the  distances  between  the  arctic  circles  and 
Tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn.  Between  the  tropics  and 
equator.  (Everywhere  the  same.) 

Such  lines  are  called  parallels  ;  and,  while  the  five  circles 
we  have  talked  of  mark  the  directness  of  the  sun's  rays,  or 
the  lengths  of  days  and  nights,  there  are  supposed  to  be 
many  such  lines  to  measure  the  distance  north  or  south  of 
the  equator  of  any  spot  on  the  earth. 

This  distance  is  called  its  latitude,  and  is  a  great  help  to 
us  in  finding  where  an  island  or  any  feature  of  the  earth 
belongs  on  the  map  or  globe.. 

What  did  we  call  those  lines  running  north  and  south  ? 
(Meridians.) 


STEP  XXII.— THE   SKIES.  275 

And  they  measured  the  distance —  ?  (East  or  west  of 
some  other  meridian.) 

Which  was  called  its —  ?    (Longitude.) 

Now,  if  a  city— Chicago,  for  example— have  its  longitude 
(88°  west  from  Greenwich)  and  latitude  (42°  north)  found,  it 
can  be  exactly  located  on  a  map. 

If  islands — the  Azores,  for  example — have  had  their  posi- 
tion carefully  noted  and  correctly  placed  on  a  map  or  chart, 
a  ship  can  steer  straight  to  them,  or  even  pass  by  in  the  dark 
without  the  danger  of  running  upon  the  rocks. 

These  illustrations  will  give  a  slight  idea  of  how  helpful 
latitude  and  longitude  are. 

The  Seasons. — These  result  from  this  yearly  journey  of 
the  earth  around  the  sun. 

What  do  we  get  from  the  sun  ?    (Light  and  heat.) 

When  do  we  get  the  most  heat — during  the  day  or  night  ? 
0>ay.) 

What  happens  at  night  ?    (Earth  cools.) 

Will  the  length  of  the  day  have  any  influence  on  the 
amount  of  heat  we  get  ?  (The  longer  the  day  the  more  heat 
our  part  of  the  earth  will  receive.) 

Suppose  the  nights  are  long —  ?  (Will  lose  more  than  it 
receives  in  the  short  day.) 

Why  does  snow  melt  quicker  on  the  south  side  of  a 
roof? 

On  which  bank  of  an  east  and  west  ravine  would  you 
seek  the  first  flowers  ?  (North.)  Why  ?  (Receives  more 
direct  rays  of  the  sun.) 

Why  is  the  glass  roof  of  a  greenhouse  or  hotbed  made  to 
slant  toward  the  sun  ?  (Direct  rays  can  enter.) 

Why  is  it  so  disagreeable  to  fish  on  the  east  side  of  a  body 
of  water  in  the  afternoon  of  sunny  days  ?  (Sunshine  is  re- 
flected from  the  water.) 

If  not  reflected,  what  would  become  of  the  heat  and 
light  ?  (Enter  the  water.) 

What  time  in  the  day  will  most  enter  ?  (Noon — when 
the  sun  is  overhead.) 


276  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Now  for  some  questions — 

Give  two  reasons  why  the  weather  grows  warmer  from 
February  to  June.  (Days  grow  longer,  and  the  earth  is 
turning  more  and  more  directly  toward  the  sun.) 

How  is  it  from  August  to  December  ?    (Growing  cooler.) 

Why  ?  (Days  grow  shorter,  and  the  rays  of  the  sun  are 
more  slanting.) 

Why  are  arctic  winters  so  terribly  cold  ?  (No  day  to  get 
heat  in,  and  the  earth  gets  cooler  and  cooler.) 

Why  are  the  short  arctic  summers  so  very  hot  ?  (Sun 
shines  day  after  day  without  any  night  to  cool  in.) 

Why  is  it  always  hot  in  the  torrid  zone  ?  (Days  are  all 
long,  and  the  surface  of  land  and  sea  lies  directly  under 
the  sun.) 

What  seasons  will  there  correspond  to  our  summer  and 
winter  ?  ("  Wet "  to  summer  and  "  dry  "  to  winter.) 

Read  selections  on  the  seasons. 

Why  are  these  frequently  changing  seasons  a  blessing 
to  man  ? 

What  causes  them?  (Yearly  revolution  of  the  earth 
about  the  sun.) 

Why  do  the  days  vary  in  length  ?  (Earth's  axis  is  in- 
clined 23i°.) 

What  results  from  that  ?  (The  north  and  south  portions 
of  the  earth  are  alternately  turned  toward  and  away  from 
the  sun.) 

What  is  the  ecliptic  ?  (The  plane  in  which  the  earth  and 
sun  are.) 

If  you  could  see  the  stars  and  sun  at  the  same  time,  in 
what  constellations  would  the  sun  be  seen  moving  in 

April  ?    Pisces,  the  Fishes. 
May  ?    Aries,  the  Bam. 
June  ?    Taurus,  the  Bull. 
July  ?    Gemini,  the  Twins. 
August  ?    Cancer,  the  Crab. 
September  ?    Leo,  the  Lion. 


STEP  XXII.— THE  SKIES.  277 

October  ?    Virgo,  the  Virgin. 
November  ?    Libra,  the  Scales. 
December  ?    Scorpio,  the  Scorpion. 
January  ?    Sagittarius,  the  Archer. 
February  ?    Capricornus,  the  Goat. 
March  ?    Aquarius,  the  Waterman. 

Review  if  need  be  as  in  (1)  page  273. 

Of  these,  Leo  was  found  in  the  last  step.  Find  it  again 
May  20th,  in  the  southwest. 

In  the  south  lies  Virgo,  and  in  the  southeast  Libra,  or  the 
Scales.  With  the  Virgin  and  Scales  is  connected  the  story 
of  the  goddess  Astrsea,  who  lived  in  the  "  golden  "  age  of 
innocence  and  happiness.  As  the  succeeding  ages  of  brass 
and  iron  saw  mankind  become  more  and  more  degraded,  all 
the  gods  and  goddesses  left  the  earth,  till  Astraea  alone  re- 
mained. At  last  all  innocence  and  purity  took  their  de- 
parture, and  the  goddess  of  Justice,  Astraea,  was  placed 
among  the  stars — the  constellation  of  the  Virgin,  holding 
in  one  hand  the  Scales  (Libra)  and  in  the  other  the  sword 
of  Justice.  (See  Burritt,  p.  82,  or  Bulfinch,  20,  etc.) 

In  June  the  next  constellation,  Scorpio,  will  appear  in 
the  southeast. 

A  beautiful  red  star,  Antares,  is  in  this  brilliant  and  easily 
traced  group.  Few  constellations  really  look  more  like  the 
thing  they  are  named  for.  There  is  but  little  of  interest  in 
the  history  of  this  group.  (See  Burritt,  102.) 

Early  in  July  will  appear  in  the  southeast  the  next  group 
of  the  zodiac — Sagittarius.  This  beautiful  constellation  is  a 
prominent  object  in  the  south  through  the  summer  evenings. 
It  is  said  to  commemorate  the  famous  man-horse  or  cen- 
taur Chiron,  who  was  famous  for  his  knowledge  of  medi- 
cine, music,  and  shooting.  He  educated  the  father  of  medi- 
cine, JEsculapius,  and  Apollo  in  music,  and  was  also  tutor  of 
the  heroes  Hercules,  Achilles,  Jason,  ^Eneas,  and  others. 
(See  Burritt,  117;  BulBnch,  155;  Greek  Heroes;  The  Argo- 
nauts; or  Hawthorne's  Golden  Fleece.) 


278  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Read  or  tell  of  some  of  these— by  preference  ^Esculapius, 
^Eneas,  and  Achilles,  as  the  others  will  figure  later,  in  con- 
nection with  the  Golden  Fleece.  Apollo  and  Hercules  have 
already  been  spoken  of. 

Capricomus,  the  next  constellation  of  the  zodiac,  will 
appear  in  the  southeast  in  August.  The  stars  are  not  bril- 
liant, and  the  two  in  the  head  will  be  best  to  identify  it  by. 

These  six  constellations  should  be  drawn  and  marked 
with  little  gilt  stars  by  each  pupil  for  home  reference.  (See 
some  star  atlas.) 


STEP  XXIIL— PLANTS. 

THE  MORNING-GLORY,  HOW  IT  GROWS.— THE  LIFE  HISTORY 
OF  ONE  PLANT. 

Object. — A  wide  survey  of  plants  in  their  varied  forms 
having-  been  had,  it  now  becomes  desirable  to  take  up — 

1.  The  careful  study  of  an  individual  plant,  to  learn  the 
use  of  its  parts,  its  food,  and  mode  of  development. 

2.  To  lead  the  pupil  to  more  exact  observation. 

3.  To  introduce  him  to  the  art  of  experimental  testing. 

4.  To  re-enforce  all  this  by  training  in  drawing  and  color 
work. 

Time. — Having  tried  all  seasons,  I  find  September  and 
October  the  best,  as  the  morning-glory  then  supplies  flowers 
and  fruit  in  abundance.  About  45  lessons  of  30  minutes 
each  will  be  required,  but  some  mature  classes  will  do  the 
work  in  30.  In  any  case,  push  the  work  steadily  forward — 
no  hurry,  no  delay,  but  a  definite  thing  accomplished  each 
lesson. 

Material. — For  this  I  have  chosen  from  cheap  and  easily 
made  things. 

For  a  class  of  30  pupils  procure  the  following- 
Morning-glory  seed  (fresh),  }  pound  (3,000  to  4,000  seeds). 

Earthenware  pots  (3-inch,  unglazed) — 48. 

Boxes,  3  inches  deep  and  of  a  shape  to  hold  8  pots  each, 
and  set  securely  in  the  window  seats — 4. 

Pebbles  or  potsherds  to  cover  holes  in  pots— 36. 

Argand  lamp  chimneys — 4. 

Some  cotton. 

Sheet  of  looking-glass  or  bright  tin  (about  6  inches 
square). 

(279) 


280  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Glass  fruit  jars  with  tops — 2. 

Tin  cans  with  covers — 1  (1-pound  "baking  powder"). 

Sound  straws  ("  lemonade,"  or  any  good  ones,  15  to  25  cm.* 
long)— 100. 

Fine  cotton  or  linen  cloth — 60  pieces  3  cm.  square. 

Distilled  water— 1  gallon  bottle  full.  (Rain  or  snow 
caught  in  clean  pans  will  do.) 

Funnel— 1  6-inch  glass  (tin  will  do).  (See  Step  XV  for 
this  and  the  following.) 

Filter  paper — 24  pieces  of  10-  to  12-inch  squares.  (Thin 
light-brown  wrapping  paper  will  do.) 

Evaporating  dish  (8-ounce  porcelain  or  shallow  pint  dish 
of  bright  tin). 

Alcohol  lamp  (4-ounce). 

Wide-mouthed  bottles  (3-ounce) — 3  dozen,  and  corks  to  fit. 

Wide-mouthed  bottles  (8-ounce,  of  clear  glass  ;  "mor- 
phine "  good)— 30,  and  corks  to  fit. 

Cheap  tumblers  (uncolored  and  smooth  as  possible) — 3 
dozen. 

Thistle  tubes — 2,  with  12-inch  stems. 

Sulphate  of  copper — 1  pound. 

Small  candles— 30  5-cm.  bits. 

Copper  wire — 36  pieces,  20  cm.  long  and  as  thick  as  a 
common  pin. 

Lime  water — Gallon  bottle  full.f 

Hydrochloric  acid — A  little. 

Cards,  for  mounting,  etc.— 600  (10  x  15  cm.),  of  light  card- 
board. 

The  above  will  cost  from  three  to  seven  dollars,  but  much 
is  on  hand  (Step  XV). 

The  other  things  needed  can  be  procured  as  indicated  in 
each  point,  being  of  slight  cost  and  easily  found. 

*  Shall  use  the  metric  measures  from  this  time  on  (see  Step  XXI),  ex- 
cept where  things  may  need  to  be  ordered. 

t  Fill  the  bottle  with  water  and  drop  in  a  teacupful  of  bits  of  the  "  stone 
lime  "  used  by  masons. 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS.  281 

Arrange  all  these  things  (except  the  glassware  and  pots) 
in  shoe  or  other  convenient  boxes,  labeled  on  the  end,  so  that 
what  is  wanted  can  be  at  once  found  even  by  a  messenger. 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher.— This  should  begin  in  the 
previous  spring,  when  plenty  of  morning-glory  seed  should 
be  planted  in  good  soil  and  trained  on  some  kind  of  trellis. 
These  will  furnish  a  supply  of  fresh  material,  and,  by  cover- 
ing a  few  times  with  a  sheet,  be  protected  from  early  frosts 
and  last  till  the  lessons  are  completed. 

During  the  leisure  of  summer  take  the  following  outline 
of  work  and  thoroughly  test  it,  step  by  step.  The  morning- 
glory  is  unique  in  many  ways,  and,  with  a  few  trifling  ex 
ceptions  (lack  of  odor,  being  monopetalous,  etc.),  almost  an 
ideal  flower  for  this  work ;  so  that  any  one  will  enjoy  and 
profit  by  this  study.  The  teacher  will  thus  have  all  the  dif- 
ficulties met  and  prepared  for,  material  ready,  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  which  will  do  much  toward  the  successful 
completion  of  the  class  work.  For  books  to  consult,  John- 
son's How  Crops  Grow  and  How  Crops  Feed  have  been  ex- 
ceedingly suggestive  to  me  for  twenty  years.  More  recent 
books  are  Gray's  Structural  and  Goodale's  Physiological 
Botanies — books  full  of  good  things ;  but  no  book  will  take 
the  place  of  the  actual  study  of  the  plant  itself.  With  that 
almost  any  recent  botany  will  do. 

The  Lessons.— A  general  outline  of  the  plan  followed 
is  this : 

A.  How  to  awaken  the  seeds  (germination). 

B.  Parts  and  direction  of  growth.     Cards  1,  2,  and  3. 

C.  What  the  plant  lives  on.    Card  4. 

D.  How  the  earth  food  is  taken.     Card  5. 

E.  How  the  air  food  is  eaten.     Cards  6  and  7. 

F.  Use  of  the  parts  and  review.     Card  8. 
O.  Growth  in.  size  (bud). 

H.  Flower  and  its  parts.     Cards  9  to  13. 
I.  Use  of  the  organs  of  the  flower.     Cards  14  to  16. 
J.  Parts  and  uses  of  the  seed.    Card  17. 


282  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  ONE  PLANT. 

Tell  nothing  that  illustrations  and  experiment  can  he 
made  to  answer.  Press  a  series  of  specimens  to  illustrate 
the  different  periods  of  the  plant  life,  and  mount  them  neatly 
on  cards,  making  drawings  of  what  can  not  be  so  shown. 

A.— How  to  awaken  the  Seeds. 

1.  Give  each  pupil  a  seed.     Talk  of  the  life  so  wonder- 
fully hidden.    How  shall  we  awaken  it  ?    Put  all  the  answers 
given  on  the  board,  and  arrange  for  trying  in  earth.     Tell 
each  pupil  to  bring  some  neat  stick  to  label  his  or  her  pot, 
and  such  other  things  as  may  be  needed  for  the  test  they  are 
to  make.    Provide  some  sand  or  earth. 

2.  As  this  lesson  will  be  a  busy  one,  have  it  at  the  close 
of  school  or  recess. 

a.  Give  each  a  pot ;  let  him  write  his  name  on  the  side. 

b.  Give  each  a  pebble  or  bit  of  broken  pot  to  put  in  the 
bottom.     Why  ? 

c.  Half  fill  each  pot  with  damp  sand  (or  earth  which  will 
not  cake). 

d.  Stick  in  the  wooden  label  each  has  brought. 

e.  Drop  six  seeds  in  each — 2  in  the  center  and  4  around 
the  edge. 

/.  Fill  the  pots  nearly  full  of  earth,  and  set  in  the  boxes 
in  such  order  as  to  be  readily  distributed  again. 

g.  Pack  all  the  space  between  the  pots  with  u  excelsior," 
moss,  or  some  substance  which  will  keep  the  pots  moist  and 
also  keep  in  shape  when  the  pots  are  lifted  out. 

h.  Now  let  each  water  his  pot  (gently)  and  put  the  boxes 
in  the  window  seats. 

3.  Proceed  in  the  following  lesson  or  two  with  the  special 
tests  which  have  been  suggested.     These  should  include 
eight  pots,  with  the  same  earth  or  sand  as  those  planted  by 
the  class,  and  twenty  seeds  in  each. 

Test  1.  Leave  two  dry.    Water  the  other  six  and  place— 
Test  2.  Two  in  an  ice  box  or  other  cold  place. 


STEP  XXIIL— PLANTS.  283 

Test  8.  Two  in  total  darkness. 

Test  4-  Two  where  they  will  be  in  the  light  all  the  time.* 

Test  5.  Also  plant  twenty  seeds  in  two  pots  each  of  saw- 
dust, brick  dust,  chaff,  stiff  clay,  leaf  mold,  and  coarse  gravel 
(water  all  of  these),  and  give  the  same  conditions  as  the  class 
boxes  of  pots. 

Test  6.  Place  a  sponge  in  a  saucer,  and,  after  sprinkling 
forty  seeds  into  the  holes,  water. 

Test  7.  Push  loose  plugs  of  cotton  into  the  small  end  of 
four  Argand  chimneys  as  far  as  the  neck.  Sprinkle  ten  seeds 
in  each ;  then  stand  them  in  some  glass  dish  (aquarium,  bat- 
tery jar,  or  pitcher)  so  that  they  will  slant  at  about  an  angle 
of  45°.  Pour  in  water  till  the  plugs  of  cotton  begin  to  rise 
with  the  pressure  from  below. 

Test  8.  Now  drop  forty  seeds  into  the  water  of  the  large 
dish. 

The  best  way  to  carry  out  these  tests  will  be  to  place  a 
list  on  the  board  and  let  the  child  who  suggests  an  experi- 
ment see  to  its  carrying  out,  he  or  she  taking  care  of  one  of 
the  two  pots,  and  some  comrade — chosen  from  among  those 
making  no  suggestions — the  other. 

All  questions  in  the  future  regarding  the  points  illustrated 
will  be  referred  to  the  two  pupils  who  have  the  matter  in 
ctarge.  A  feeling  of  responsible  authority  will  be  awak- 
ened, greatly  to  the  pupils'  advantage. 

The  object  of  the  "  forty  seeds  "  in  each  case  is  that  each 
pupil  may  have  a  specimen  at  the  close  of  the  test  to  press, 
mount,  and  label.  The  "  two  pots  "  are  partly  to  avoid  over- 
crowding, and  partly  to  enforce  the  lesson  that  no  single 
scientific  test  is  of  much  value,  but  should  be  substantiated 
and  proved  by  repeating.  Do  not  in  any  way  lead  the  class 
to  depend  on  one  isolated  test.  Mistakes  may  occur. 

A  record  of  all  these  tests  should  be  kept.  My  experience 
has  been  that  pupils  of  10  to  11  years  have  such  hard  work 

*  A  small  lamp  and  reflector  will  give  this,  if  no  electric  station,  factory, 
or  other  place  lighted  all  night  can  be  found. 


284  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

with  the  spelling  and  writing  as  to  make  the  keeping  of  in- 
dividual note  hooks  too  slow  and  distracting.  Would  en- 
courage all  who  wish  to  do  so,  but  not  require  it.  If,  how- 
ever, some  bright  pupil  with  a  ready  pen  can  keep  a  history 
of  it  all  for  the  entire  class,  and  make  drawings  of  the  re- 
sults of  each  test,  it  will  he  a  valuable  thing.  All  can  refer 
to  it,  and  many,  from  the  example  set,  will  make  one  like  it, 
greatly  to  their  advantage.  The  work  is  now  under  full 
headway,  and  I  never  had  a  class  whose  interest  was  not 
complete  in  watching  and  tending  such  experiments. 

4.  While  awaiting  results,  consider  how  these  small  seeds 
are  to  throw  off  the  load  of  earth,  etc.,  on  top  of  them. 

Have  used  these  illustrations :  Suppose  you  were  on  a 
load  of  hay  and  it  tipped  over  and  covered  you  up ;  how 
would  you  get  out  ?  Would  you  rather  be  lying  on  your 
back,  or  on  your  face  ?  Suppose  a  stout  boy  should  have  a 
40-pound  hair  mattress  (in  halves)  piled  on  him;  in  what 
position  could  he  throw  off  most  ? 

An  experiment  one  class  tried,  of  planting  weighed  seeds 
in  sand  and  plastering  molding  clay  over  them  to  be  raised 
as  the  seeds  sprouted,  showed  that,  if  a  75-pound  boy  was  as 
strong  as  a  morning-glory  seed,  he  could  lift  two  carloads 
(20  tons)  of  grain !  * 

The  class  will  now  be  kept  busy  observing  the  results  of 
the  experiments  and  the  curious  way  the  seeds  back  out. 
Let  each  dig  up  one  (as  soon  as  it  appears)  from  the  side  of 
his  pot  and  press  in  some  large  magazine  or  book  to  mount  it. 
Do  this  with  a  plant  from  each  experiment  as  it  is  completed, 
and  lay  a  label  in  with  it  to  aid  in  the  final  mounting. 

A  danger  will  occur  here,  in  ordinary  school  work,  name- 
ly, all  these  interesting  things  may  happen  between  Friday 
afternoon  and  the  following  Monday.  There  is  no  rule  I  can 
give  to  avoid  this,  but  if  the  work  begins  Monday,  the  class 
will  plant  their  seeds  late  on  Tuesday,  and  the  other  trial 

*  Other  examples  of  the  force  growing  plants  exert  can  be  found  under 
Sharp  Stones— Step  XX. 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS. 


285 


plantings  Wednesday  or  Thursday.  Ordinarily  no  fires  will 
be  had  early  in  September,  and,  the  nights  being  cool,  the 
seeds  will  germinate  slowly,  so  that,  by  watching  the  devel- 
opment a  little  and  using  quite  warm  water  and  the  heat  of 
all  day's  sun,  if  they  have  not  sprouted  by  Friday — or  placing 
in  the  shade  and  using  cold  water  in  case  they  start  too  soon 
— they  will  come  along  so  as  to  complete  the  observations 
(and  pressing  of  specimens) 
by  the  second  Friday. 

These  conclusions  will  now 
be  evident.  To  sprout — 

(1)  Seeds  must  have  moist- 
ure.    (Dry  ones  do  not  start.) 
Every  seed  store  furnishes  an 
illustration. 

(2)  Seeds  must  have  heat. 
(Cold  prevented.)    Winter  ? 

(3)  Seeds  must  have   air 
(oxygen).      (Those   in  water 
[not  enough  air]  rotted.) 

(4)  Anything  will  do   to 
plant  in  or  on  if  it  does  not 
cake  too  hard. 

(5)  Light  or  darkness  is  im- 
material to  the  sprouting  seed. 

(6)  The  seed   backed  out 
with  great  force. 

B.— Parts  and  Direction  of 
Growth. 

6.  When  fully  up,  what 
parts  can  be  seen  ? 

6.  Which  way  do  they 
grow  ?  Why  were  the  little 
leaves  folded  over  as  the  plant 
backed  out  ?  (To  avoid  in- 
jury.) (See  Fig.  1.)  FIG.  l. 


286 


SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 


FIG.  2. 


7.  Are  these— stem,  leaves,  and  bud — all  the  parts  ?  (Each 
dig  a  second  plant  from  the  side  of  his  pot,  and,  after  observ- 
ing the  root,  press.)    (See  Fig.  2.) 

8.  Which  way  does  the  root  grow  ? 

9.  Do  all  our  stems  grow  up  ?     (Compare 
with  each  other.) 

10.  Do  all  the  roots  grow  down  ? 

11.  Is  it  always  so  ? 

Let  us  see  if  we  can  get  them  to  grow 
otherwise. 

Get  class  to  suggest  experiments  which 
will  test  this,  and  have  them  carried  out  in 
duplicate  (or  more)  by  members. 

Illustrations  helpful  with  me  have  been 
as  follows : 

(1)  Those  in  the  slanted  lamp  chimneys  will  be  found 
pressing  against  the  glass  on  opposite  sides.      Turn  the 
chimneys  half  round.    The  roots  will  now  be  pointing  up- 
ward and  stems  downward.     Do  they  turn  back  ?     Give 
specimens  to  press  when  done. 

(2)  Pack  cotton  about  the  stems  of  a  flourishing  pot  of 
plants  to  hold  the  earth,  after  re- 
moving from  the  pot,  and  suspend, 

tops  down,  by  strings  tied  around. 
(See  Fig.  3.) 

(3)  Sprout   forty  seeds  between 
layers   of    cloth,   and,  as   soon   as 
the  young  root  is  6  to  8  mm.  long, 
give  one  to  each  child  to  tie  a  fine 
thread    gently   on    the    root    near 
where  it  leaves  the  seed  ;   an  inch 
above  it  tie  a  little  slip  of  paper 
with  the  child's  name.     Do  this  as 
quickly  as  may  be,  to  avoid  drying 
the  root  too    much,  and  then    let 

each   child    place   his  plant,  hanging  root    up,  inside  a 
wet  fruit  jar,  while  the  teacher  screws  on  the  top.    Only 


FIG.  3. 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS.  287 

8  or  10  should  be  hung  in  one  jar.  The  growing  plant- 
let  is  now  reversed,  and  in  the  moist  air  of  the  jar  can 
grow  as  it  wants  to.  Which  way  do 
the  majority  grow  ?  *  After  24  hours 
let  each  press  (thread  and  all)  his  speci- 
men. (See  Fig.  4.) 

(4)  What  do  you  think  causes  the 
tops  to  go  up  and  roots  down  f  (Get 
as  many  ideas  from  the  class  as  you 
can  and  record  them  on  the  board. 
The  answers  will  include  some  of  the  following:) 

uThe  top  grows  up  because  the  light,  least  earth,  and 
least  moisture  are  above." 

u  The  root  grows  down  to  avoid  the  light,  and  toward  the 
most  earth  and  moisture." 

Propose  that  we  try  to  "fool"  some  seeds,  and,  by  re- 
versing these  conditions,  get  them  to  grow  the  other  way. 

Take  two  baking-powder  (or  other)  cans  that  have  covers, 
and,  standing  them  on  the  end  of  a  stick  of  wood,  punch 
twelve  to  twenty  holes  through  each  bottom  with  a  long 
nail.  Wet  the  bottoms,  and  proceed  to— 

a.  Place  2  cm.  of  dry  earth  in  the  cans.     (The  wet  holes 
will  clog  and  hold  it.) 

b.  Scatter  25  seeds  in  each. 

c.  Place  on  top  7  cm.  of  moist  earth  and  add  a  little  water. 

d.  Put  on  the  covers  tightly. 

e.  By  strings  hang  the  cans  in  the  window,  and  under 
each  place  a  piece  of  looking-glass  or  bright  tin,  to  throw 
the  sunlight  strongly  up  on  the  perforated  bottoms. 

We  now  have  light,  dry  earth  and  slight  depth  below, 
and  darkness,  most  earth  and  moisture  above.  Await  re- 
sults, and  give  each  child  a  specimen  to  press  when  the  seeds 
have  started — which  way  ?  (See  Fig.  5.) 

*  Between  9  o'clock  and  noon  I  have  had  such  seedlings  turn  through 
180°  and  the  inverted  top  be  again  upright ;  but  the  seedling  must  be  taken 
At  just  the  right  time,  or  it  will  not  act  BO  promptly. 


288 


SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


C. — What  the  Plant  Lives  on. 

Lead  the  class,  by  questions  and  illustrations,  to  see  the 
need  of  food.    Why  are  sick  people  weak  and  thin  ?    Why 
are  poor  people  often  the  same  ?    A  baby  grows 
— what  makes  him  ? 

12.  What  must  our  plants  have,  to  grow  ? 
Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  what  its  food  is. 

13.  Place  a  bit  of  cake  or  apple  at  end  of 
room  and  carefully  note  what  a  boy  has  to  do 
to  get  and  eat  it.     (Goes,  reaches,  takes  in  hand, 
puts  to  mouth,  bites,  chews,  and  swallows.) 

14.  Can  a  plant  go  and  get  food  ? 

15.  Let  a  child  ask ;  have  food  brought  and 
placed  near  him,  and  observe  again  :   Can  a 
plant  ask  ? 

16.  Again  place  food  near  a  child.     Need  he 
go  hungry  ?    Why  not  ? 

Need  he  go  f  Ask  for  it  ?  Where  must  the 
food  be  if  he  need  neither  go  nor  ask  ?  (Near.) 
Where  must  the  plant's  food  be  ? 

17.  What  things  are  "  next  to  "  our  plants  ? 
(Earth,  air,  and  water.) 

18.  Which  part  grows  down  ?    In  what  ? 
Which  parts  grow  up  ?    In  what  ? 

D.—How  the  Earth  Food  is  taken. 

After  John  had  food  near  him,  what  did  he 
do  ?  (Reached,  took  in  hand,  etc.) 

19.  Has  a  plant  hands  ?    Examine  some  that 
FIG.  5.         have  grown  in  cloth,  sponge,  or  cotton.     (No.) 

Notice  fine  root  hairs. 

20.  Is  there  any  way  to  take  food  without  hands  ?    (Place 
a  bit  of  apple  or  cake  near  each  and  see  if  he  or  she  can 
eat  it  without  hands.     Speak  of  kittie,  dog,  calf,  etc.     Do 
plants  have  "  mouths  "  ? 

21.  (To  give  idea  of  things  too  small  to  be  seen.)    Show 


STEP   XXIII.— PLANTS.  289 

very  large  apple  (too  big  for  a  little  child  to  bite).  Smaller 
one  more  easily  bitten.  Piece,  easily  put  in  mouth.  Suck 
water  through  straw,  and,  pulling  out  straw,  let  children 
look  for  the  hole.  Suck  water  through  a  straw  with  fine 
linen  over  end. 

22.  Might  not  the  openings  in  the  roots  be  too  small 
to  see  ? 

23.  What  kinds  of  food  can  we  take  when  our  mouths 
are  almost  shut  ?    (Water,  milk,  and  broth.)    We  call  such 
substances —  ?    (Liquids.) 

24.  What  kind  of  food  must  the  plant  have  to  take 
through  its  small  mouths  ?    But  has  it  milk  or  broth  near 
it?    (Water.) 

25.  Can  a  plant  live  on  water  f 

Give  each  child  two  well- washed  3-ounce  bottles,  and  for 
the  top  of  each  let  pupils  prepare  a  square  of  cardboard 
with  a  hole  in  the  center  as  large  as  a  slate  pencil.  Take 
scissors  and  cut  from  one  edge  to  the  hole.  Next  give  each 
two  slips  of  gummed  paper  to  stick  on  his  bottles,  and  on 
one  write  "Pure  water,"  on  the  other,  "Earth  food."  Add 
his  initials  to  identify  by. 

In  the  "  pure  water "  bottle  pour  two  inches  of  distilled 
water,  and  in  the  other  a  like  amount  of  clear  brook  or  well 
water. 

Let  the  pupils  now — from  their  own  pots  or  any  plants 
about  the  room  which  can  be  spared— each  choose  two  plants 
as  nearly  mates  as  possible,  and,  after  gently  rinsing  off  the 
roots  in  water,  to  free  from  adhering  earth,  bend  the  cards 
gently,  so  as  to  let  the  stems  of  the  plants  into  the  central 
hole,  and  place  roots  down  in  the  bottles. 

Place  these  bottles  in  boxes  and  stand  in  the  shade  for  a 
day,  and  then  remove  to  a  warm,  sunny  place,  to  see  if  both 
grow  alike.  At  the  end  of  a  week  compare  the  results  of 
the  whole  class,  when,  if  reasonable  care  has  been  taken, 
there  will  be  a  marked  difference.  Press  the  specimens  at 
the  end  for  Card  4.  While  these  experiments  are  in  progress 
proceed  with  the  work. 
21 


290  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

What  did  the  calf  live  on  ?  Why  is  milk  hetter  than 
water  ?  (Has  food  in  it.) 

26.  Let  us  find  if  there  is  any  food  in  the  water  our  plant 
takes  in.    If  caught  in  a  shower,  how  would  you  get  the 
water  out  of  your  clothes  ?    Washing  day  ?    After  the  water 
was  dried  off,  what  would  he  left  ?    (Clothes.)    Now,  milk 
is  made  of  what  two  things  ?    (Water  and  food.)    Would 
you  like  to  see  some  of  the  milk  food  ?    (Condensed  milk, 
thick  milk,  cheese.)    Where  is  the  water  our  plant  takes  in  ? 
The  food,  then,  must  come  from —  ?    (Earth.)    Let  us  see  if 
we  can  get  some  of  this  earth  food  hy  passing  water  through 
earth. 

Fold  a  square  of  filter  paper  twice,  and,  slipping  the  fin- 
gers into  one  side,  insert  it  in  the  funnel  and  stand  this  in 
one  of  the  8-ounce  hottles.  Put  a  pint  of  inch  earth  (add  a 
little  hen  manure  or  guano,  if  other  rich  compost  can  not  he 
had)  in  the  funnel  and  a  pint  of  water.  After  this  has  run 
through,  quickly  return  it  to  the  earth  and  filter  through 
again.  Repeat  at  least  twice,  and  then  put  the  water — which 
should  have  no  solid  particles  in  it — in  the  evaporating  dish, 
and  set  on  a  hot  place  to  boil  till  only  a  spoonful  is  left. 
Then  set  it  off  in  some  warm  place  to  slowly  dry,  and  exhibit 
to  the  class.  What  is  left  ?  (Earth.)  How  did  we  get  it  ? 
Is  there  food  in  the  water  from  rich  earth  ?  Would  each 
like  a  specimen  of  one  kind  of  earth  food  to  keep  ?  (Look 
in  the  bottom  of  the  tea-kettle  at  home,  and  get  some  pieces 
of  "  scale.") 

27.  What  part  of  the  plant  takes  in  this  earth  food  ? 

28.  How  does  it  take  it  in  ? 

Here  are  some  experiments  to  help  answer  this  ques- 
tion : 

a.  Let  each  bring  some  fleshy  root  or  fruit  (beet,  carrot, 
turnip,  apple,  etc.);  with  a  knife  (or  apple  corer)  dig  out  a 
smooth  hole  in  the  center,  as  large  as  the  thumb,  being  care- 
ful not  to  dig  through  in  any  direction.  Wipe  this  hole  out 
with  a  cloth  or  sponge.  Is  there  any  water  in  it  ?  (No.) 
Let  each  stand  a  root  or  fruit  up  in  some  place,  and  then 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS. 


291 


introduce  a  spoonful  of  dry  granulated  sugar  and  leave  till 
next  day.     (See  Fig.  6.) 

b.  Let  each  drop  2  untorn  raisins  or 
prunes  into  a  3-ounce  bottle  and  cover 
with  water. 

c.  In  the  morning  tie  pieces  of  soaked 
bladder  (from  butcher  or  tobacconist) 
tightly  over  the  mouths  of  some  thistle 
tubes,  having  first  plugged  the  small  end 
and  nearly  filled  with  a  strong  solution 
of  CuSO4  (copper  sulphate),  or  even  com- 
mon salt.    Now  stand  these,  membrane 
down,  in  tumblers ;  unstop  the  plugged 
ends  (now  up),   and  fill    the   tumbler 
with  water  till  the  level  of  the  liquid  is 

the  same  inside  and  out. 
Watch  these  3  experi- 
ments for  24  to  48  hours. 
(See  Fig.  7.) 

Meantime  talk  of  some 
illustrations. 

Who  have  ever  had 
"canned  "  cherries  to  eat  ? 
Were  they  plump,  or 
shriveled  ?  (Plump.)  Very 
sweet,  or  not  ?  (Not.) 

Who  has  seen  the  rais- 
ins in  rice  pudding  ?  Were 
they  plump,  or  shriveled  ? 
Is  rice  pudding  very 
sweet  ?    (No.) 

If  whole  plums  or  cherries  are  pre- 
served in  a  rich,  thick  sirup,  are  they 
plump?  (No;  shriveled.) 

Who  has  ever  seen  currants  or  strawberries  a  while  after 
having  sugar  sprinkled  over  them  ?  How  did  they  look  ? 
(Shriveled,  and  a  sirup  in  the  dish.) 


PIG.  6. 


Pie.  7. 


292  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Who  has  seen  beef  or  pork  packed  in  barrels  ?  How  was 
it  done  ?  (Meat  closely  packed,  with  dry  salt  around  it.) 

After  it  had  lain  a  while,  what  change  took  place  ? 
(Meat  was  floating  around  in  a  lot  of  brine,  and  the  pieces 
were  smaller.) 

Now  let  us  look  at  our  experiments. 

What  has  happened  to  the  sugar  ?  (see  a,  above).  (Is  a 
sirup.)  And  the  root  or  fruit—  ?  (Is  shriveled.) 

How  did  this  happen  ?  (The  sugar  drew  the  water  from 
the  root.) 

How  about  the  prunes  and  raisins  ?  (b.)     (Swelled.) 

And  the  liquid  inside  the  thistle  tubes —  ?  (c.)  (Has 
risen.) 

Does  any  of  the  blue  copper  solution  seem  to  have  come 
out «  (Yes.) 

Does  any  water  seem  to  have  gone  in  ?    (Yes.) 

What  makes  you  think  so  ?    (Water  rose  in  the  tube.) 

Which  is  thickest — water,  or  a  solution  of  copper  sul- 
phate ?  (Copper  sulphate.) 

Which  seems  to  pass  through  a  skin  fastest  ?  (The  thin 
liquid.) 

Was  there  a  skin  to  the  raisins  ? 

What  was  inside  ?    (Pulp  and  grains  of  sugar.) 

As  a  little  water  soaked  through  the  skin,  what  hap- 
pened to  the  sugar  ?  (Dissolved.)  Making  what  ?  (A  thick 
sirup.) 

Who  can  tell  me  why  the  raisins  and  prunes  swelled  ? 
(The  thickest  liquid  was  inside,  and  the  thin  water  flowed 
in  faster  than  the  thick  sirup  could  flow  out.) 

Can  you  explain  why  the  dry  sugar  in  the  carrot  or  ap- 
ple became  a  sirup  ?  (The  moisture  in  the  apple  was  drawn 
out  to  the  sugar  because  it  was  thin,  like  water.) 

"  Why  are  canned  cherries  "  plump  ?  (The  juice  of  the 
fruit  is  thickest.) 

Raisins  in  rice  pudding—  ?    (Same  reason.) 

Preserved  fruits  and  sugared  strawberries —  ?  (Shrivel 
because  the  juice  is  thinnest.) 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS.  293 

Pork  and  beef —  ?  (The  moisture  in  the  meat  is  thinner 
than  the  brine.) 

If,  then,  two  different  liquids  are  separated  by  a  skin 
through  which  they  can  pass —  ?  (The  thinnest  goes  through 
fastest.) 

Now  for  the  taking  of  the  earth  food  by  our  plant. 

Who  has  seen  a  kind  of  white  fuzz  covering  roots  ?  (Yes, 
in  several  of  our  experiments.) 

Now,  all  roots  have  that,  only  in  digging  them  up  out  of 
the  soil  they  are  rubbed  off  or  else  covered  with  soil  so  as 
not  to  be  seen.  Each  one  of  those  little  u  root  hairs "  is  a 
tiny  sac  full  of  "  sap,"  as  we  call  the  juices  of  a  plant.  (See 
Fig.  8.) 

What,  then,  is  one  way  the  plant  "  feeds  "  ? 
(The  sap  is  thickest,  and  so  the  liquid  earth 
food  flows  in.) 

I  thought  you  could  answer  that,  after 
these  experiments !  Some  day  we  shall  learn 
more  of  this.  FIG. 

Two  questions  more  before  we  leave  this  : 

How  would  it  do  to  water  plants  with  very  strong  earth 
food  ?  (They  could  not  take  it  in.) 

Why  should  you  be  careful  not  to  let  the  roots  of  a  plant 
get  dry  f  (The  drying  quickly  destroys  the  root  hairs,  and 
the  plant  can  not  feed.) 

29.  A  plant,  then,  lives  on—  ?  (Water  and  the  earth  dis- 
solved in  it.) 

This  is  taken  in  by—  ?    (The  little  root  hairs.) 

Cards. — The  specimens  pressed  will  now  be  dry,  and  should 
be  mounted  and  labeled.  Number  each  card,  neatly,  in  the 
upper  right-hand  corner. 

On  Card  1.— Mount  the  doubled-over  seedling,  and  label, 
Plant  backing  out. 

Card  2.— A  young  plant  and  its  parts.  Specimen  from 
Point  7. 

Card  3. — The  top  grows  up  and  the  roots  down.  All 
specimens  from  the  experiments  on  this  (Point  11). 


294:  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Card  4.— A  plant  can  not  live  on  pure  water.  (25)  Two 
specimens. 

Card  5. — How  the  root  feeds.  Specimens  of  28,  and  col- 
ored drawings  of  the  experiments  tried  by  the  child :  sugar 
in  root;  thistle  tube  and  the  blue  copper  sulphate  rising  in 
the  stem ;  barrel  of  beef,  and  a  list  of  the  examples  and  illus- 
trations given.  Some  pupils  would  be  able  to  illustrate  the 
entire  list  (28),  but  do  not  take  class  time,  or  delay  for  it. 

E. — How  is  the  Air  Food  eaten* 

30.  When  I  dried  the  water  from  the  earth  food,  what 
was  left  ?    (Earth.) 

Will  earth  burn  ?    Try  a  piece  of  u  scale."    (No.) 

Suppose  I  try  some  real  earth.  (Take  a  blacking-box 
cover  or  other  shallow  tin  dish  with  no  soldered  joints ;  place 
some  earth  in  it,  and  heat  strongly  over  a  gas  jet  or  on  a  hot 
stove.)  (No;  earth  does  not  burn.) 

Suppose  I  mix  some  sawdust  with  it.  (Try  again,  mix- 
ing one  tenth  earth  with  nine  tenths  dry  sawdust.)  Does  it 
burn  ?  (Yes.)  All  up  ?  (No ;  the  earth  and  some  ashes  are 
left  behind.) 

What  becomes  of  most  of  the  sawdust  ?  (Goes  off  in 
smoke  and  gas.) 

31.  Show  some  dried  leaves  or  parts  of  a  morning-glory 
plant. 

Is  there  any  water  in  these  ?  ("  No,"  the  class  will  prob- 
ably say.) 

What,  then,  is  it  that  forms  these  dry  plants  ? 

What  did  the  plant  eat  ?    (Water  and  earth.) 

If  there  is  no  water  in  these,  what  do  you  think  there  is  f 
(Earth.) 

Will  these  dry  plants  burn  ?    Try.     ("  Yes.") 

Can  these,  then,  be  all  earth  ? 

Will  water  burn  ?    (No.)    Will  earth  ?    (No.) 

But  these  do !  What  does  it  teach  us  about  a  plant's  food  ? 
(It  must  be  something  besides  water  and  earth.) 

It  certainly  seems  so.    Let  us  see. 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS.  295 

32.  What  is  there  next  to  the  plant,  besides  water  and 
earth  ?  (Air.) 

What  parts  are  in  the  air  ?    (Stem,  leaves,  and  hud.) 
Experiments. — Give  each  pupil  an  8-ounce  hottle  with 
2  cm.  of  lime  water  in  it,  an  unsplit  straw,  piece  of  candle, 
and  piece  of  copper  wire.     All  work  together. 

a.  This  is  limewater  in  your  bottles,  such  as  you  can 
often  see  in  a  mortar  (or  plaster)  bed.     Is  it  clear  ?    (Yes.) 
Cork  it  and  shake  a  little.     Is  it  still  clear  ?    (Yes.)  *    Does 
pure  air  change  limewater  ?    (No.) 

b.  Twist  one  end  of  the  wire  twice  around  the  candle,  so 
as  to  make  a  holder  for  it,  and  then  lower  the  unlighted 
candle  into  the  bottle  while  I  count  60.    Eemove  the  candle, 
cork  the  bottle,  and  shake  again.     Is  it  still  quite  clear  ? 
(Yes.) 

Does  an  unlighted  candle  change  limewater  ?    (No.) 

c.  Light  the  candle  and  lower  it  into  the  bottle  till  the 
flame  begins  to  grow  dim  and  flicker,  when  at  once  remove 
it  and  cork  the  bottle.     Shake  again.     (The  limewater  has 
turned  milky !) 

What  made  it  do  so  ?    (The  burning  candle.) 

d .  Wash  out  the  bottle  clean,  and  then  put  in  more  clear 
limewater. 

When  all  are  ready,  each  take  a  long  breath  and  then 
gently  and  slowly  blow  the  air  through  the  straw  into  the 
limewater. 

How  does  it  look  now  ?    (Very  milky.) 

e.  If  possible,  inclose  a  mouse  or  some  beetles  in  a  little 
cage  of  wire  netting  and  suspend  them  in  a  fruit  jar  over 
some  fresh  limewater  for  15  minutes.     Eemove,  close  the 
bottle,  and  shake.     (Milky.) 

How  does  our  breath  and  that  of  animals  change  lime- 
water  ?  (Milky  color.) 

/.  Tie  a  little  bundle  of  dry  leaves,  straw,  or  shavings 
with  a  piece  of  copper  wire  ;  moisten  with  a  spoonful  of 

*  Unless  the  air  of  your  schoolroom  is  very  impure. 


296  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

alcohol,  "to  start  it  burning";  light,  and  lower  in  a  fruit 
jar  over  some  clear  limewater.  When  the  flame  has  burned 
a  minute  (or  gone  out),  remove;  cover  the  jar  and  shake. 
What  ?  (Milky  again.) 

What  do  the  candle  and  leaves  turn  into  ? 

Some  will  say  "  smoke,"  and  some  say  "  air. "  Let  us  burn 
this  candle  in  the  open  fruit  jar  for  several  minutes.  Do 
you  see  any  "smoke"?  (No.)  Kemove  the  candle  and 
cover  the  jar.  What  can  you  see  in  the  jar  ?  (Nothing.) 
Is  it  really  empty  ?  (No;  full  of  air.)  Will  pure  air  change 
limewater  ?  (No.)  Pour  in  some  limewater  and  shake. 
Was  it  pure  air  ?  (No.)  Would  you  like  a  name  for  this 
airlike  substance  from  our  breath  and  the  candle  which  turns 
limewater  milky?  The  shortest  and  best  is  "CO2  £fa8." 
Let  me  make  some  another  way,  to  learn  more  about  it. 

Put  a  teaspoonful  of  crushed  limestone  or  marble  into 
one  of  the  3-ounce  bottles,  and  add  water  enough  to  cover  it. 
Tie  a  wire  around  the  neck,  so  that  it  can  be  lowered  into  a 
fruit  jar.  Have  the  fruit  jar  clean  and  dry.  Now  pour  about 
a  spoonful  of  hydrochloric  acid  on  the  stone,  and  at  once 
lower  the  bottle  into  the  jar  and  lay  a  card  over  the  top. 
The  class  will  be  too  much  interested  in  watching  the  ex- 
periment to  listen  to  anything  else,  so  simply  talk  of  how 
there  is  much  of  this  CO8  in  the  stone,  which  the  strong  acid 
is  driving  off,  and  it  is  the  bubbles  of  this  rising  through  the 
water  which  makes  all  the  commotion.  Can  you  see  any 
"smoke"  now  ? 

After  two  or  three  minutes  of  brisk  effervescence,  light  a 
match  and  slowly  dip  it  down  into  the  jar.  If  it  goes  out, 
the  jar  is  full ;  if  not,  wait  a  minute  and  try  again.  When 
the  extinguished  match  shows  it  is  full  of  COZ,  light  a  candle 
and  stand  it  in  a  second  jar ;  gently  lift  out  the  bottle  of  stone 
and  acid,  and  proceed  slowly  to  pour  the  CO2  gas  (like  water) 
on  to  the  lighted  candle.  It  goes  out!  Stop  pouring,  re- 
place the  stone-and-acid  bottle,  and  cover  the  mouth  again 
with  the  card.  Lift  out  the  candle,  light,  and  lower  again 
,in  its  jar,  Goes  out!  Repeat  this,  to  see  how  Jar  down  it 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS.  297 

can  be  lowered  before  going  out.  Is  CO8  gas  light,  or 
heavy  ?  Why  heavy  ?  (Sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  jar  and 
can  be  poured  like  water.)  Who  can  tell  me  how  I  can  find 
whether  there  is  CO8  gas  in  a  jar  ?  (Lower  a  lighted  match 
or  candle.)  How  can  I  prove  this  is  the  same  gas  as  that 
from  our  breath  or  the  lighted  candle  ?  (With  lime  water.) 

Clean  out  jar  No.  2,  and  pour  in  some  lime  water  and 
(as  at  first)  also  some  CO8  gas  and  shake.  (Very  milky.) 
Is  it  the  same  ?  (Yes.)  If  need  be,  add  a  little  more  acid, 
and,  replacing  the  small  bottle  in  its  jar,  cover  with  the  card 
and  leave  where  the  class  can  see.  What  does  CO2  gas  look 
like  ?  What  can  you  tell  me  about  it  ?  (Heavier  than  air, 
puts  out  lights,  and  turns  limewater  milky.)  This  CO 2  gas 
is  very  important,  and  about  it  I  have  several  interesting 
stories.  Sometimes  men  have  gone  down  into  deep  holes, 
where  there  was  much  decaying  matter —wells  or  sewer 
openings — to  work,  and  after  a  few  moments  have  fallen 
down  senseless  and  died,  unless  rescued  and  brought  up  to 
the  pure  air.  How  could  they  have  found  out  whether  there 
was  CO2  gas  before  going  down  ?  (Lowered  a  lantern.) 

The  CO 2  in  this  case  came  from —  ?    (Decaying  matter.) 

A  distillery  is  where  alcohol  and  whisky  are  made.  Corn- 
meal  is  cooked  and  then  mixed  with  some  yeast  in  huge  tubs 
and  left  to  ferment.  During  this  fermentation  a  great  deal 
of  CO2  gas  comes  bubbling  off,  and  at  times  this  has  run 
over  and  filled  some  of  the  empty  tubs.  Suppose  you  were 
a  workman  sent  to  clean  one  of  these  tubs,  not  knowing  it 
was  full  of  CO  2  gas.  Could  you  see  the  bottom  ?  You  let 
down  a  short  ladder  and  descend  into  the  tub.  What  hap- 
pens ? 

What  did  the  CO8  in  this  case  come  from  ?  (Fermenta- 
tion.) 

Many  years  ago  a  large  number  of  Englishmen  (146)  were 
taken  prisoners  in  India,  and  were  crowded  into  a  room 
only  20  feet  square  and  having  but  two  little  windows  for 
air.  The  next  morning  only  23  were  alive.  What  was 
<one  cause  of  their  death  ?  (CO,  gas.)  From— ,?  (Their 


298  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

breath.)  This  is  often  referred  to  as  u  The  Black  Hole  of 
Calcutta." 

I  was  once  told  of  a  stable  boy  who  made  a  fire  of  char- 
coal in  a  pan  and  took  it  into  his  bedroom  to  warm  himself. 
After  a  while  he  went  to  bed,  and  the  next  morning  was 
found  dead.  What  killed  him  ?  (CO,  gas  from  the  char- 
coal.) Do  you  suppose  he  had  the  windows  open  ?  How 
would  that  have  helped  him  ? 

Sometimes  stoves  have  a  "  damper,"  as  it  is  called,  in  the 
pipe,  and  if  this  is  turned  across,  none  of  the  CO,  from  the 
burning  coal  can  get  up  the  pipe  and  out  of  doors,  so  it  pours 
out  into  the  room.  Will  it  rise,  or  fall  ? 

A  mother  was  ironing,  one  day,  in  a  close  room,  and  put 
her  baby  on  the  floor  to  creep.  After  a  while  she  noticed 
how  still  he  was,  and,  looking  around,  saw  him  lying  un- 
conscious on  the  floor.  Picking  him  up  and  bathing  his  face 
in  cold  water,  he  soon  revived.  What  was  the  trouble  ? 
Where  did  the  CO2  come  from  ? 

The  "  Grotto  del  Cane,"  or  Cave  of  the  Dog,  is  a  small 
cave  near  the  volcano  of  Vesuvius,  into  which,  it  is  said, 
people  can  walk  in  safety,  but  a  dog  soon  falls  in  convul- 
sions, recovering  if  taken  to  the  open  air.  What  is  the 
matter  ?  Where  does  the  CO2  gas  come  from  ?  (The  vol- 
cano.) 

Now  tell  me  what  sources  of  CO8  gas  I  have  spoken  of. 
(Decaying  things,  fermentation,  breath  of  animals,  fires  and 
lights,  and  volcanoes.) 

Let  the  teacher  expand  this  thought  till  the  class  has 
some  idea  of  the  enormous  quantity  daily  poured  into  the 
atmosphere.  Why  does  it  not  kill  us  $  Here  is  one  of  those 
wonderful  and  beautiful  plans  which  we  so  constantly  find 
in  Nature — where  seeming  ill  works  great  good. 

First  let  us  prove  there  is  CO2  in  the  air  about  us.  What 
does  it  do  to  limewater?  I  will  pour  some  limewater  in 
these  saucers  and  set  them  about  the  room.  (Crust  will 
form.) 

Next,  let  us  burn  this  little  bundle  of  morning-glory 


STEP  XXIIL— PLANTS. 


299 


leaves  over  some  limewater  in  a  clean  jar.  What  is  the 
result  ?  (CO 2  gas  comes  from  the  burning.)  Where  could 
the  leaf  have  got  this  ?  (From  the  air.) 

33.  How  do  we  "  eat  air  "  ?    (Breathe  through  our  noses.) 
Has  a  plant  noses  ? 

Examine  leaves  and 
stem.  (None  to  he  seen.) 

Can  you  breathe 
through  the  tiny  meshes 
of  a  handkerchief  ? 

Just  as  in  the  roots 
we  could  not  see  the 
u  mouths,"  so  in  the 
leaf  we  can  not  see  the 
"noses,"  as  they  are 
very,  very  small.  These 
noses  take  in  CO2  from 
the  air.  (See  Fig.  9.) 

Press  some  morning- 
glory  leaves,  to  mount 
on  Card  6. 

34.  Expand       the 
thought  of  the  multi- 
tude of  leaves  at  work 
making  the  air  pure  for 
us   to  breathe  by  con- 
suming the  CO  8.    How,  Fie.  9. 
in    the    winter,    when 

the  leaves  have  fallen  ?  (Winds  drive  it  to  countries  where 
there  are  leaves.)  * 

In  review.— What  two  foods  have  the  plants  ? 

What  is  each  eaten  by— water  and  earth  ?  (Earth  food 
eaten  by  the  roots,  and  CO2  gas  by  the  leaves.) 

Is  anything  else  needed  for  the  plant  to  grow  ? 


*  Connect  this  with  geography  and  the  seasons — Step  XXII — by  finding 
the  countries  on  the  map  toward  the  sun  in  the  winter,  etc. 


300  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

Tell  of  how  potato  and  other  sprouts  in  a  cellar  reach 
out  toward  a  window,  and  house  plants  turn — after  what  ? 
(Sunlight.) 

F.—Use  of  the  Parts  and  Review. 

35.  Of  what  use  is  the  root  f    (Takes  in  the  earth  food.) 
Anything  else  ?    Picture  what  would  happen  if  plants 

had  no  roots,  and  the  confusion  which  would  result  from 
having  nothing  to  hold  them  in  their  place  and  position. 

36.  What  part  just  above  the  root  ?    (Stem.)    Where  are 
the  leaves  ?    (On  the  stem.)    What  is  the  use  of  the  stem  ? 
(To  hold  the  leaves  up  in  the  sunlight  and  air.)    Yes;  and 
something  else. 

37.  Arrange  some  cards,  with  several  holes  in  the  center, 
and,  having  filled  the  8-ounce  bottles  almost  full  of  water, 
cover  with  the  card.     Let  each  child  now  take  his  bottle  and 
card  to  a  sunny  window  and  set  it  in  a  secure  place.     Divide 
the  class  into  two  divisions,  and  let  "  Division  1 "  insert  the 
stems  of  leafy  twigs  through  the  holes  of  their  cards,  and 
then  cover  them  by  inverting  perfectly  dry  and  cool  tum- 
blers on  the  cards.     Let  "  Division  2  "  strip  off  all  the  leaves 
from  a  corresponding  set  of  twigs,  and  insert  the  leafless 
stems  through  the  holes  and  cover  with  dry  and  cool  glasses 
inverted  on  the  cards.     In  the  sunshine  of  a  warm  room 
five  minutes  will  usually  complete  the  experiment.    What 
difference  do  you  observe  between  the  glasses  ?    (Those  over 
the  leaves  have  moisture  on  them;  the  others  not.) 

Where  did  the  moisture  come  from  ?    (Leaves.) 
Where  did  the  leaves  get  it  ?    (From  the  stems.) 
Where  do  the  stems  of  growing  plants  get  the  water  ? 
(Roots.) 

What,  then,  is  another  use  of  the  stem  ?  (To  carry  earth 
food  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves.) 

To  see  how  the  stem  does  this,  let  us  try  some  experi- 
ments. 

a.  Each  cut  a  strip  of  blotting  paper  5  cm.  long  by  2  cm. 
wide.  When  all  are  ready,  give  the  word,  and  each  hold 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS. 


301 


the  end  of  the  slip  just  in  the  surface  of  some  ink  for  60 
seconds. 

What  has  the  ink  done  ?  (Crept  up  the  paper.)  (See 
Fig.  10.) 

Save  these  slips  for  Card  7. 

b.  Give  each  pupil  a  3-ounce  bottle  containing  a  little 
colored  water  (indigo,  copper  sulphate  with  ammonia,  or  ani- 
line), and  a  bit  of  broken  thermometer  or  fine  glass  tubing. 

Stand  the  end  of  the  tube  in  the  liquid, 
and  what  happens  ?  (Colored  liquid  rises  in 
the  tube.) 

Blow  it  back  and  try  this  several  times. 

c.  Take  (teacher)  a  cork  with  a  hole  in  it, 
through  which  draw  a  piece  of  lamp  wick. 
Moisten  the  entire  wick  with  alcohol  and 
light  the  upper  end,  while  the  lower  rests  in 
some  alcohol. 

How  is  the  flame  fed  ? 

d.  Let  one  corner  of  a  towel  rest  in  some 
water,  while  the  other  is  held  up  high  on 
some  hook.     Leave  it  over  night. 

e.  Fill  a  lamp  chimney  full  of  bits  of 
sponge,  cotton,  dry  sawdust,  or  other  porous 
substances,  and  stand  it  over  night  in  a  dish 
of  water. 

How  did  the  top  get  wet  ? 

/.  Take  equal-lengthed  pieces  of  different  dry  woods 
(matches,  etc.)  and  stand  them  (as  they  grew)  in  water  for 
one  or  two  days.  Does  the  water  creep  up  through  them  ? 

Now  tell  me  one  way  the  earth  food  has  of  getting  from 
the  root  to  the  leaves.  (Creeps  up  between  the  fibers  of  the 
stem,  as  in  the  lampwick,  etc.) 

Illustrate  this  on  Card  7. 

38.  Now  tell  me  two  uses  of  the  leaves.  (To  give  out 
water  and  take  in  air  food.) 


FIG.  10. 


302  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


O.— Growth  in  Size.    Bud. 

39.  What  parts  have  we  studied  ?    (Root,  stem,  and  leaf.) 
Which  way  do  they  grow  ?    What  must  the  plant  have  to 
grow  ?    What  kinds  of  food  does  it  eat  ?    How  does  it  eat 
these  ?    What  does  food  makews  do  ?    (Grow.)    How  do  we 
grow  ?    More  hands,  eyes,  etc.,  or  larger  ? 

40.  How  does  the  plant  grow  ?    What  parts  did  it  begin 
with  ?    (Four.)    Has  it  any  new  kinds  of  parts  ?    How  about 
the  number  *    (More.)    (See  Fig.  11.) 

41.  Whence  have  all  these  new  parts  come  ?   (Give  sprays 
of  morning-glory  vine  to  examine;  they  grow  from  the 
bud.) 

42.  What  comes  from  the  bud  f    (Stem,  leaf,  bud;  stem, 
leaf,  bud.)    "  Helpful  parts." 

43.  How  are  these  helpful  parts  arranged  ?    (One  above 
another.)    Leaves—?    (On  stem.)    Buds—?    (In  the  angles 
of  the  leaves.) 

44.  Has  every  leaf  a  bud  ?    How  do  you  know  your  hand- 
kerchief ?    (By  mark.)    What  is  the  mark  of  a  leaf  ?    (Bud.) 

45.  Complete  review  and  summing  up. 

46.  Any  part  without  a  use  ?    So  always,  if  we  are  wise 
enough  to  find  it.     (Card  8  made.) 

H.— Flower  and  its  Parts. 

So  far  the  plant  has  been  growing  in  size  and  pushing 
out  many  roots,  clothed  with  delicate  root  hairs,  into  the 
soil,  and  many  leaves  into  the  sunshine,  to  feed  on  the  CO§ 
and  give  out  the  surplus  water.  What  is  it  doing  all  this 
for  1  (To  make  the  air  pure.)  Yes ;  but  plants  always  have 
their  own  ends  to  accomplish,  although  here  again,  as  al- 
ways in  this  wisely  arranged  world,  "  he  best  serves  himself 
who  serves  others."  What  does  the  plant  want  to  do  for 
itself*  Let  us  see. 

47.  What  comes  from  a  bud  ?    ("  Helpful  parts  " — stem, 
leaf,  bud;  stem,  leaf,  bud,  etc.)    What  do  we  keep  plants 
for  in  the  winter  ?    (Flowers.)    Are  these  plants  that  flower 


STEP   XXIII.— PLANTS. 


303 


PIG.  11. 


304 


SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 


young,  or  mature  ?  Have 
they  many  leaves  and 
roots,  or  only  a  few  ? 
Yes  ;  these  plants  that 
blossom  have  more  food 
than  they  need  simply  to 
grow. 

48.  What  part  do  blos- 
soms come  from  ?  (Buds.) 

49.  When  does  a  bud 
grow     into      a     flower  ? 
(When    the  plant  is  old 
enough     and    has    more 
than  enough  food.)    How 
many  parts  have  we  now 
to    our    plants?     (Five.) 
(See  Fig.  12.) 

50.  Let  us  study  this 
new  and  beautiful  part. 
(Provide     a    flower,    or, 
better    still,    a    spray    of 
morning  -  glory    with     a 
flower,    for    each.)      Let 
us  start  for  a   climb  up 
a     morning -'glory    vine, 
and    see    what    we   find. 
(Follow    with    a    pencil 
or   pin.)     First—?     (The 
stem.)     Then—  ?     (Leaf.) 
Next—  ?       (Bud,      etc.— 

44 helpful  parts  "— till  we  come  to  stem,  leaf.)    What  is  this  ? 
(Another  stem,  and  just  where  a  bud  should  be.)    Let  us  fol- 


•  a 


Fio.  12. 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS. 


305 


low  this.  (Swollen  place  ;  little,  green,  hairy  leaves — deli- 
cate-colored leaves.)  Go  down  into  a  deep  cup.  (Little  hairy 
stems.)  Let's  climb  one.  (Hard  work ;  kuob  on  top,  and 
some  nice  little  white  grains  to  lunch  on.)  Climb  down 
again.  (Hill  in  middle;  smooth  pole  on  top.)  Climb  up, 
(Big,  rough,  sticky  top,  with  some  of  the  white  grains 
on  it.)  A  bee  would  nod  something  nice  in  the  bottom  of 
the  flower.  What  ?  (Sweet  nectar.) 


FIG.  13. 

Press  a  flower  (slit  down  one  side  to  show  the  parts)  for 
Card  9.  (See  Fig.  13.) 

I.— Use  of  the  Parts  of  Flower. 

51.  What  part  did  we  find  first  ?  (Little  green  [calyx] 
leaves.)  Of  what  use  are  they  ?  (Observe  a  bud.)  Why  in 
several  pieces  ?  (So  as  to  cover  the  delicate  parts  while 

22 


306 


SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 


growing.)    Ball  cover,  orange  peel.    Press  calyx  for  Card  10. 
(See  Fig.  14.) 

52.  (Corolla.)    What  next?    Where?     (Inside  calyx.) 
In  pieces  like  outside  ?    (No.)    Shape  ?    Use  ?    (To  protect 


Fio.  14. 


Pie.  15. 


more  delicate  parts.)      Press  corolla  for   Card  11.      (See 
Fig.  15.) 

53.  (Stamens.)  What  inside  the  colored  part  ?  Parts  ? 
(Stalk,  knob  on  top,  white  grains.)  Shall  soon  see  its  use. 
Press  stamens  (5)  for  Card  12.  (See  Fig.  16.) 


FIG.  16. 

54.  (Pistil.)  What  next  ?  Where  ?  Parts  ?  (Hill  at 
bottom  [ovary],  stalk,  sticky  top.)  Examine  hill.  (Three 
chambers  with  little  white  ovules  fastened  to  the  sides — 
jewel  box,  baby  in  bed,  etc.)  How  beautiful  it  all  is !  What 
can  it  all  be  for  ?  We  shall  see.  Press  pistil  for  Card  13. 
(See  Fig.  17.) 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS. 


307 


FIG.  17. 


55.  Show  nearly  ripe  capsules  with  seed.      Yes  ;  these 
ovules  can  be  seeds,  if  plenty  of  the  white  dust  gets  on 
the  sticky  top  and  makes  them  grow.     (Repeat 

and  emphasize.) 

56.  Here  are  some  interesting  things  to  show 
you  : 

a.  This  is  an  ear  of  corn  which  I  picked  from 
a  stalk  that  grew  alone  in  the  middle  of  a  potato 
field.    See !  there  are  only  a  few  scattered  grains 
of  corn  on  a  big  cob.     All  these  little,  dried-up, 
brown  things  between  were  once  fresh  and  grow- 
ing ovules.     Why  did   they  not  develop  into 
corn    grains  ?     (Wind    blew    the   pollen  away 
from  its  own  high  tassel,  and  no  other  stalks 
were  near.) 

b.  Here  is  an  ear  of  corn  well  covered  with 
kernels.     Did  plenty  of  pollen  fall  on  its  silky 
stigmas  ?    But  how  do  you  explain  the  different 

colors  of  the  grains  ?  Some  are  red,  and  the  rest  yellow, 
while  here  is  an  ear  of  sweet  corn  with  scattered  black 
grains.  (Pollen  from  another  kind  of  corn  got  on  the  stig- 
mas.) 

c.  I  once  knew  a  man  who  wanted  some  cucumbers  early 
in  the  spring  ;    so  he  planted  the  seeds  in  the  rich,  warm 
earth  of  a  hothouse,  and  the  vines  grew  rapidly  and  ran 
over  everything,  but   not   a   cucumber  set!     There  were 
lots  of  blossoms,  of  two  kinds — one  with  the  stigmas  and 
tiny  little  cucumberlike  ovaries,  ready  to  grow  into  large 
ones;  and  others  with  lots  and  lots  of  golden -yellow  pol- 
len.    But  something  was  wrong,  for  the  little  cucumber- 
like  ovaries  kept  turning  yellow  and  dropping  off.     What 
was  the  trouble  ?     (No  pollen  on  the  stigmas.)     At  last 
some  one  told  the  man  to  take  a  soft  brush  and  dust  the 
pollen  on  the  stigmas,  which  he  did,  and  had  plenty  of  cu- 
cumbers. 

d.  Here  are  5  green  morning-glory  seed  pods  for  each  of 
you.     Open  them  by  cutting  a  slice  off  the  top,  and  count 


308 


SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 


the  growing  seeds  in  each.  How  many  do  you  find  ?  ("  6," 
U5,"  U3,"  "4,"  etc.)  What  is  the  highest  number?  (6.) 
Why  do  others  have  less  ? 

Before  we  answer  this  let  us  arrange  our  cards  and  draw- 
ings. 

Card  10. — With  a  little  glue,  gum  on  the  pressed  calyx. 
An  overcoat  picture  might  be  cut  out  of  some  fashion  book 
and  added. 

What  shall  we  write  by  the  pressed  calyx  ? 
What  is  its  use  ? 

Yes;  we  will  write,  To  protect. 
Card  11. — Gum  on  the  pressed  corolla.    A 
dress  might  be  added  by  the  girls,  and  a  suit 
of  clothes  by  the  boys.   What  shall  we  write  ? 
(To  protect,  again.) 

Card  12. — Gum  on  the  5  stamens  in  a  row 
near  the  top.  What  shall  we  write  as  the 
use  of  these  ?  (To  give  pollen.) 

This  pollen  is  so  important  and  curious 
that  I  want  you  to  make  some  drawings  of 
the  grains  as  they  would  look  under  a  micro- 
scope. You  may  copy  these  from  the  board. 
(See  Fig.  18.)  A  is  a  magnified  stamen. 
What  does  the  parted  filament  show  ?  (That 
it  is  too  long  to  draw  entire,  and  a  portion 
has  been  left  out.) 

What  does  "  x  10  "  under  A  and  B  mean  ? 
(Magnified  or  multiplied  10  times.) 

B  is  one  of  the  pollen  grains  from  A  more 
highly  magnified. 

What  do  you  observe  about  it  ?  (Round, 
and  studded  with  little  points.) 

Let  all  who  can  get  a  magnifier  examine 
the  pollen  of  several  morning-glory  flowers,  and  tell  me  to- 
morrow whether  all  the  grains  resemble  each  other.  These 
grains  have  two  coats. 

The  outer  is  thick,  except  where  the  points  are.    The 


FIG.  18.— (x  10.) 


STEP  XXIIL-PLANTS. 


309 


C 


inner  is  thin,  delicate,  and  elastic  ;  and  inside  of  all  is  a 
thick,  liquid  substance,  which  can  grow  if  it  has  food. 

The  grain  might  be  compared  to  a  ball,  covered  first  with 
thin  India  rubber,  and  over  that  a  stout  cover  (like  a  base- 
ball) with  perforations  in  it.  Now  try  and  think  what  will 
happen  if  the  liquid  inside  grows.  (As  it  grows  it  will  press 
on  the  thin  rubber  coat,  and  this  will  stretch  out  at  one  of 
the  perforations,  like  a  protruding  glove  finger.)  Good! 
and  this  protruding  part  is  called  a  "pollen  tube." 
I  will  draw  one,  and  we  will  letter  it  C.  (See  Fig. 
19.)  One  thing  more,  and  this  card  is  done: 

In  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the  card 
place  two  little  rectangles,  1  cm.  long  by  3  mm. 
wide.  After  one  write,  in  neat  letters,  "  Pollen," 
and  after  the  second  write  "  Cellular  tissue." 

It  is  very  helpful,  in  drawings  of  this  kind,  to 
have  some  color  which  always  represents  the  same 
thing.  What  is  the  color  of  morning-glory  pollen 
and  stamen  ?  (White.)  But  our  paper  is  white, 
so  that  will  not  do.  What  is  the  usual  color  of 
pollen  ?  (Yellow.)  Yes ;  and  when  you  find  time, 
you  may  color  one  little  rectangle  and  the  stamen 
itself  the  color  of  most  leafy  and  other  growing 
tissue — what  ?  (Green.)  Yes ;  and  when  it  is  dry, 
what  will  you  color  the  other  rectangle  and  the 
pollen  grains  of  A,  B,  and  C  f  (Yellow.) 

What  will  be  the  word  after  the  yellow  rec- 
tangle ?     (Pollen.)     And  then,  wherever  we  see   yellow, 
we  shall  know  it  means—?     (Pollen.)     And  what  does 
our  key  tell  us  is  to  be  the  color  of  all  growing  tissues  ? 
(Green.) 

Card  13. — Gum  the  pressed  pistil  in  the  upper  left-hand 
corner.  Draw  Fig.  A  in  the  center  of  the  card,  ten  times 
larger  than  the  real  pistil.  How  many  lobes  to  the  flat 
stigma  ?  (3.)  (See  Fig.  20.) 

Cut  a  green  capsule  across,  and  find  how  many  cham- 
bers. (3.) 


FIG.  19. 


310 


SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


FIG.  21. 


FIG.  20. 


How  many  ovules  in  each  ? 
(2.) 

Make  a  drawing  (B)  of  it, 
multiplied  2  times.  (See  Fig. 
21.) 

Draw  three  little  rectangles 
(for  "key"  colors),  and  after 
the  second  write  "Cellular  tis- 
sue," and  after  the  third  write 
"Ovules,  or  seeds."  We  will 
choose  orange  for  ovules  and 
seeds.  Tissue  is—  ?  (Green.) 
After  the  first  write  "Pollen." 
What  color?  (Yellow.) 

This  card  now  shows  us  the 
parts  of  the  pistil  and  the  struc- 
ture of  the  ovary. 

Card  14.— Let  the  class  copy 
from  the  board  the  following 
idealized  diagram  of  the  grow- 
ing pollen  tubes  and  their  union 
with  the  ovules.  (See  Fig.  22.) 

(A)  represents  the  top  end  of 
the  pistil  with  3  pollen  grains 
sticking  on  it.  The  stigma  is 
moist  with  a  slightly  sweet 
liquid,  and  when  the  grains  fall 
on  it  what  happens  ?  (It  sticks ; 
the  liquid  outside  is  thinnest. 
and  enters  the  pollen  grain, 
which  begins  to  grow,  and, 
pushing  the  thin  inner  coat 
before  it  through  one  of  the 
thin  places  in  the  thick  outer 
coat,  projects  as  a  pollen  tube.} 
On  which  side  will  it  be  most 
apt  to  push  through  ?  (The 


STEP  XXIIL— PLANTS. 


311 


moist,  under  side.)  Now  draw  2  tubes  each  about  5  cm.  long 
and  ending  in  the  broken  way  which  indicates  there  is  more 
which  is  not  shown.  Let  the  third  tube  be  only  2  cm.  long. 
Fill  in  between  them  with  the  loose  cells  I  have  shown.  Some 


FIG.  22. 

people  think  there  is  apzpe  for  the  pollen  tubes  to  grow  down 
through  ;  but  there  is  not,  except  that  the  cells  do  not  fit 
closely,  and  the  tubes  find  their  way  through  the  cracks. 
Imagine  a  well  to  be  filled  full  of  huge  stones  and  then  cov- 
ered over  with  earth.  If,  now,  a  tree  were  planted  over  the 


312  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

stones,  what  would  the  roots  do  ?  (Follow  the  cracks  be- 
tween the  stones.)  And  what  would  nourish  them  ?  (The 
moisture  and  earth  food  on  and  in  the  stones.)  So  the  deli- 
cate pollen  tubes  push  their  way  through  the  loose  cells  of 
the  style,  and  these  in  turn  nourish  and  protect  them. 

Now  look  at  B,  (Fig.  22).  This  represents  an  up-and-down 
section  of  the  ovary.  You  see  the  partition  wall  to  which 
the  two  ovules  are  attached,  and  the  outer,  protecting  walls, 
which  keep  the  delicate  ovules  from  the  drying  and  injury 
their  exposure  would  cause.  We  will  draw  the  walls  first ; 
then  the  ovules,  with  little  openings  on  the  upper  sides. 
Now  draw  the  ends  of  the  two  longest  pollen  tubes— one 
ending  in  the  opening,  and  the  other  ending  a  little  above 
it.  Fill  in  the  loose  tissue  of  the  style,  and  draw  three  little 
"  key  "  rectangles.  What  shall  we  color  them  ?  (Green, 
orange,  and  yellow.)  Yes;  and  name  as  on  the  other  cards. 

But  little  explanation  is  needed.  The  pollen  tubes  push 
down  and  down  till —  ?  (They  enter  the  openings  of  the 
ovules.)  Suppose  they  do  enter —  ?  (The  ovules  will  then 
grow  into  seeds,  able  to  sprout  and  produce  new  morning- 
glory  plants.)  Suppose  no  pollen  falls  on  the  stigma,  it  dries 
up,  or  anything  prevents  the  tubes  growing  to  and  joining 
the  ovules —  ?  (They  will  at  last  die  and  shrivel  up.)  Just 
as  we  saw  on —  ?  (The  ear  of  corn  that  grew  alone.)  Does 
it  seem  quite  important  that  the  pollen  should  get  on  the 
stigma  ? 

57.  How  is  it  to  get  there  ?    Examine  several  flowers. 
(Falls,  or  the  wind  blows  it  on.)    But  sometimes  the  stigma 
is  above,  and  it  can  not  fall,  or  the  wind  does  not  blow ;  what 
then  ?    (The  flower  must  have  help.)    Like  the  cucumbers 
in  the  greenhouse. 

58.  If  you  want  help,  how  do  you  get  it  ?    Can  flowers 
talk  ?    How  do  business  men  get  help  ?    Do  they  run  about 
asking  people  ?    (Advertise.)    Read  some  u  Help  wanted  " 
advertisements  from  paper.     Then  show  colored,  pictured, 
perfumed,  and  odd-shaped  advertisements.     Why  not  plain 
black  and  white  ?    Why  colored  ?  pictures  ?  queer  shapes  ? 


STEP  XXIIL— PLANTS.  313 

odors  ?  (More  apt  to  attract  notice.)  Why  do  people  work 
for  each  other  ?  (Pay.)  Suppose,  after  working,  they  got  no 
pay ;  would  they  work  again  ?  A  poor  man,  with  a  large 
family,  works,  but  gets  no  pay ;  will  he  work  for  that  man 
again  ? 

59.  Our  morning-glory  flower  evidently  needs  help.    Can 
it  talk  ?    How  can  it  let  its  wants  be  known  ?    (Advertises.) 
How  ?    (Bright  colors  and  shapes.) 

60.  Who  will  work  for  a  flower  ?    Did  you  ever  see  any- 
thing at  work  about  a  flower  ?    (Bees  and  butterflies.)    Do 
you  suppose  they  will  work  for  nothing  ? 

61.  What  has  the  flower  to  pay  with  ?    (Show  honey  in 
comb.)    What  is  this  ?    How  did  it  get  in  these  nice  little 
cells  ?    Who  put  it  there  ?    Where  did  the  bee  get  it  ?    Did 
he  get  it  for  nothing  ?    What  work  did  he  do  ?    (Pollen  on 
sticky  top.)    Suppose  he  was  lazy  or  dishonest;  could  he  not 
take  the  honey  without  doing  the  work  ?    (Examine  the  body 
of  a  bee.    Note  its  big,  hairy  body.     Note  the  shape  of  the 
flower  and  position  of  nectar.     Have  a  boy  with  a  shag- 
gy coat  try  to  get  candy  from  a  flour  barrel  without  getting 
dusty.) 

62.  Where  is  the  nectar  in  a  flower  ?    Now,  as  he  crawls 
in  to  get  the  nectar,  what  must  he  get  all  over  him  ?    Can 
he  help  it  ?     Does  he  get  nectar  enough  in  one  flower  ? 
What,  then,  happens  when  he  pushes  his  big,  hairy  body, 
all  dusted  with  pollen,  into  the  next  flower  ?    Is  there  any 
danger  of  his  not  doing  the  work  ?    What  compels  him  to 
do  what  the  flower  wants  ?    (Shape  of  the  flower  and  loca- 
tion of  the  nectar.) 

63.  Nectar  differs  in  taste,  and  a  bee  likes  to  gather  one 
kind  at  a  time.     How  is  he  to  know,  among  the  many  flow- 
ers, which  to  go  to  ?    What  has  the  flower  to  guide  him  ? 
(Color  and  shape.) 

Only  one  of  these.  Let  us  try  a  game.  Here  are  pieces 
of  colored  paper  which  we  will  lay  all  around  the  room 
(or  yard).  On  each  is  the  picture  or  name  of  some  plant 
from  which  bees  gather  honey.  Each  pupil  may  choose 


314:  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE   TEACHING. 

some  kind  of  honey  to  gather,  and,  when  all  have  chosen, 
each  may  set  out  gathering  and  bring  what  he  gets  to  me. 

These  slips  can  be  prepared  as  follows : 

a.  Get  a  package  of  kindergarten  folding  papers  (assorted 
colors). 

6.  Select  2  sheets  each  of  some  13  well-contrasted  colors. 

c.  On  one  of  the  sheets  lay  off  two  good-sized  circles,  a 
square,  a  rectangle,  a  rhomb,  and  a  triangle ;  and  then,  lay- 
ing this  pattern  on  the  pile  of  assorted  colors,  cut  through 
all  according  to  the  lines  laid  out.     There  will  then  be  26 
squares  of  13  different  colors,  and  so  for  the  other  shapes. 
Now  cut  one  of  the  sets  of  26  circles  into  half  circles,  and 
one  set  of  these  26  half  circles  into  quadrants. 

d.  Get  some  outside  help  to  place  on  all  the  rhombs 
either  the  word  "Basswood,"  or  an  outline  sketch  of  the 
flower  cluster  (see  almost  any  botany)  ;  on  the  squares  put 
"  Mint " ;  on  the  circles  print  or  draw  "  Morning-glory  " ;  on 
the  triangles,   "Buckwheat";    on  the  quadrants,   u White 
clover";  on  the  oblongs,  " Golden-rod ";  and  on  the  half 
circles,  "  Apple." 

A  variation  of  this  would  be  to  cut  out  bells  (morqing- 
glory),  clover  leaves,  apple  blossoms,  and  other  shapes. 

An  easier  way  would  be  to  lay  out  the  triangle,  square, 
etc.,  on  a  piece  of  firm  writing  paper  the  size  of  the  colored 
paper  to  be  cut  ;  then,  inside  the  lines  of  each,  make  the 
proper  drawing,  writing  (or  both),  in  hectograph  ink,  and 
print  the  26  sheets  on  the  gelatin  pad  before  cutting  up.* 

*  The  hectograph  has  been  a  great  help  to  me  in  many  ways — printing 
outlines,  maps,  diagrams,  examination  questions,  etc. 
I  have  observed  these  rules  in  its  use  : 

1.  Moisten  with  a  sponge  (don't  rub}  before  using. 

2.  After  the  sponge,  lay  successive  sheets  of  newspaper  or  blotting 
paper  on  the  surface  to  take  up  surplus  water. 

3.  After  printing  never  wash.    Washing  wastes  the  pad  and  leaves  it 
uneven,  while  the  ink  soon  sinks  in  and  does  no  harm.    In  12  hours  the 
pad  can  be  used  again,  and,  by  using  one  end  or  corner  after  another,  it  is 
seldom  that  a  place  can  not  be  found  to  use. 


STEP   XXIII.— PLANTS.  315 

A  bee  is  only  able  to  carry  a  certain  amount  home. 
What  shall  we  call  a  u  load  "  for  us  ?  (6  slips.) 

Place  on  the  board  the  names  of  all  the  plants  which  the 
class  know  of  as  being  worked  upon  by  bees ;  add,  if  need 
be,  any  they  have  omitted,  and  underscore  those  you  have 
chosen.  Let  each  now  choose  his  or  her  "  favorite  kind  of 
honey,"  and  then  go  out  in  search  of  it.  He  will  soon 
learn  that  it  is  shape,  and  not  color,  which  guides  the 
bee. 

64.  Now,  what  three  ways  for  the  pollen  to  get  on  the 
stigma  ?     (Falls  on ;  wind  carries  it,  or  bees  and  butterflies 
dust  it  on.)    When  the  pollen  is  once  sticking  on  the  stigma, 
what  happens  ?    (Pollen  tubes  are  pushed  out  and  down 
through  the  protecting  and  guiding  style  to  the  ovules,  which 
they  unite  with,  and  then  the  ovules  grow  and  grow  till  they 
are—  ?    (Seeds.) 

65.  Complete  cards.    Let  us  now  take  our  cards  again, 
and  add  what  we  have  learned : 

Card  1  shows —  ?    (Review.)     Anything  to  add  ? 

Card  2  shows —  ?    (Review.)    Anything  to  add  ? 

Card  3  shows —  ?    (Review.)    Anything  to  add  ? 

Card  4  shows —  ?    (Review.)    Anything  to  add  ? 

Card  5  shows—  ?    (Review.)    Anything  to  add  ? 

Card  6  shows —  ?    (Review.)    Anything  to  add  ? 

Card  7  shows —  ?    (Review.)    Anything  to  add  ? 

Card  8  shows —  ?    (Review.)    Anything  to  add  ? 

Card  9. — Have  we  found  any  new  part  ? 

Card  10. — Any  new  use  for  the  calyx  ? 

Card  11  —Any  new  use  for  the  corolla  ?  (Yes;  it  adver- 
tises for  help  by  its  shape  and  colors ;  offers  fine  nectar  pay, 
and  by  its  shape  compels  the  bees  to  do  the  work,  and  then 
guides  them  to  other  flowers  of  the  same  kind.) 

We  will  record  this  on  the  cards. 

4.  When  the  surface  gets  uneven,  stand  the  tin  tray  over  a  kettle  of  boil- 
ing water  till  the  gelatin  is  well  melted.  Pick  out  any  specks  or  froth 
which  may  show,  and  set  it  in  a  still,  perfectly  level  place  to  cool. 


316  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Card  12. — What  does  your  card  say  as  to  the  use  of  the 
stamens  ?  (To  give  pollen.)  Any  other  use  ?  (No.) 

Card  13.—  Name  the  parts  of  the  pistil.  Tell  the  use  of 
the  sticky  stigma.  How  is  the  style  constructed  ?  The 
ovary  ?  Tell  the  "  story  "  of  a  grain  of  pollen  that  got  on 
the  stigma.  Tell  the  story  of  an  ovule  that  grew  into  a 
seed. 

Card  14. — Different  ones  may  tell  me  what  the  drawings 
show.  (Make  it  an  exhaustive  review.) 

Card  15. — Each  draw  and  color  a  flower  or  spray  of 
morning-glory  vine  on  this  card.  When  done  the  very  best 
you  can,  come  to  me  for  some  of  these  transfer  pictures  of 
pretty  bees,  butterflies,  and  moths,  which  you  can  place  as 
though  they  were  after  the  nectar.  Label  the  card  "Bee 
and  butterfly  visiting  the  flower  for  nectar." 

Card  16. — This  is  a  hard  card  to  keep.  A  good  way  is  to 
build  up  the  edges  by  taking  one  or  two  pieces  of  thick  card- 
board the  size  of  the  card,  cutting  out  a  square  or  oval  as  large 
as  is  needed  to  hold  the  dissected  seed  pod,  and  gumming 
the  thick  border  left  to  the  card.  This  will  protect  the  parts 
gummed  on.  Give  each  a  perfect  seed  capsule  in  a  little  box. 
What  parts  can  you  see  ?  (Little,  pointed  remains  of  the 
style ;  3  valves,  which  split  off,  and  6  black  seeds  in  3  curious 
chambers.)  With  a  pencil  make  dots  where  these  parts  are 
to  be ;  place  a  drop  of  strong  glue  on  each  dot,  and  then  put 
the  parts  on  the  glue,  press  down,  and  set  aside  to  dry. 
Label  it  "  The  ripe  ovary  and  its  parts." 

66.  Now,  I  think,  we  can  answer  the  question  asked  under 
£T,  and  tell  me  what  the  roots,  stems,  and  leaves  were  all 
working  for.  To  build  a  plant  that  could  bear  seed  ! 

How  wonderfully  this  is  planned  for,  we  have  seen. 
What  lessons  it  all  has  for  us — that  we  "  bear  much  fruit " 
in  our  daily  lives,  leaving  the  world  brighter  and  better  for 
our  having  lived.  Read  to  the  class  Longfellow's  Psalm  of 
Life,  as  emphasizing  this. 


STEP   XXIII.— PLANTS. 


317 


J. — Parts  and  Uses  of  the  Seed. 

67.  We  will  now  study  this  curious  seed.  What  can  you 
see  about  it  ?  (Black  outside,  scar,  shape.)  These  seeds  are 
very  hard.  Let  us  soak  them.* 

Before  examining  the  seeds,  let  us  take  these  green  cap- 
sules of  the  morning-glory  and  see  what  we  find.  Cut  a 
slice  off  the  top  of  one,  and  tell  me  what  you  see.  (Six  seeds 
in  three  chambers.)  (See  Fig.  23.) 

Do  you  or  have  you  ever  noticed  anything  peculiar 
about  the  cut  seeds  ?  (White  inside,  with  wavy  green  lines 
across.) 

Gently  squeeze  the  capsule,  and  see  what  happens. 
(Little  green  plantlets  come  out  from  each  seed.)  (See  Fig. 


FIG.  23. 


PIG.  24. 


FIG.  25. 


24.)  Good !  And  how  did  they  get  there  ?  (Grew.)  True, 
but  what  made  them  grow  ?  (Pollen  tube.)  What  is  around 
them  ?  (A  whitish  jelly.) 

Cut  green  seeds  in  various  ways,  and  see  how  wonderfully 
the  little  plant  is  packed  in  the  seed.  (See  Fig.  25.) 

Now  take  Card  17,  and  make  a  drawing  of  "  A  cross  sec- 
tion of  ripe  ovary,  x  5  times." 

68.  Here  are  our  soaked  seeds.  Open  carefully  with  a  pin, 
and  see  what  you  can  find.  (Black  coat,  white  skin,  two 
little  leaves  all  crumpled  up,  a  little  white  point,  some  jelly.) 


*  Place  in  warm  water  12  hours  before  wanted. 


318  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

Place  the  little  plant  and  black  coat  on  Card  17  to  dry,  and 
label. 

69.  Allow  some  of  the  seeds  to  sprout  one  half  inch,  and 
then  give  to  examine.     Examine  as  before.     Any  new  part  ? 
Anything  gone  ?    (Jelly.)    Where  is  the  black  coat  ?    Two 
little  leaves  ?    Little  point  ?    Where  was  all  this  plant  before 
the  seed  sprouted  ?    (Packed  away  in  the  seed,  snug  and 
tight.) 

70.  What  is  the  use  of  having  the  little  plant  so  snugly 
packed  away  ?    What  happens  to  our  plants  in  the  fall  ? 
(Freeze.)    Are  the  seeds  killed,  too  ?    What  will  they  do 
when  it  gets  warm  in  the  spring  ? 

71.  But  how  can  a  seed  grow  when  it  has  neither  roots 
nor  leaves  to  feed  by  ?    Does  it  not  need  food  ?    If  you  see 
a  fat  little  boy  growing  bigger  and  bigger,  do  you  think  he 
has  no  food  ?    But  he  is  too  small  to  work ;  how  does  he 
get  it  ? 

72.  Do  you  think  these  seeds  can  start  to  grow  without 
food  ?    Were  the  second  plants  you  had  larger  than  those  in 
the  soaked  seeds  ?    How  did  they  get  larger  ?    Then  they  do 
grow.     Look  and  see  if  there  is  anything  like  food  in  the 
soaked  seeds.     (Jelly.)    Yes,  that  is  the  food.     Where  was 
it  before  the  seeds  began  to  grow  ?    Who  packed  it  there  ? 
What  a  kind,  thoughtful  mother!    What  parts  have  we 
found  to  our  seed  ?    (5  fingers.)    Now  add  to  Card  17  a 
drawing  of  "a  vertical  section  of  morning-glory  seed,"  and 
make  a  "  key,"  adding  brown  for  the  little  stem,  which  points 
straight  toward  what  ?    (Scar.) 

73.  What  kind  of  food  must  the  kind  mother  have  packed 
away  ?    Speak  of  small  space ;  could  be  no  waste. 

74.  What  kind  of  food  did  we  find  the  plant  must  have  to 
eat  ?    But  this  is  hard.    What  was  needed  besides  warmth 
and  air  to  make  the  seed  sprout  ?    Yes,  water,  to  make  the 
food  thin  for  the  little  plant. 

75.  How  does  the  little  plant  live  after  eating  up  all  the 
jelly  ?    (Review  uses  of  roots  and  leaves.) 

Review  and  Examination.— This  will  greatly  aid  pupils 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS.  319 

who,  through  sickness  or  other  cause,  have  heen  absent  and 
lost  the  thread  of  the  work,  and  will  hurt  no  one.  Push  it 
vigorously  through,  and  mark  on  it,  if  marking  must  be 
done.  There  must  be  no  repetition. 

1.  Each  in  succession  tell  me  something  about  the  morn- 
ing-glory plant. 

2.  Each  tell  me  of  some  illustration  or  experiment. 

3.  Each  show  and  tell  about  something  he  jhas  pressed 
or  drawn. 

The  average  of  these  three  marks — one  on  pressing  and 
mounting,  one  on  drawing  and  color  work,  and  one  on  in- 
terest and  attention — will  represent  as  fairly  as  possible  the 
real  work  of  the  class. 

Questions. — Where  a  class  has  seemed  to  need  it,  I  have 
used  the  following  set  of  questions,  answered  orally : 

1.  Describe  the  plant  we  have  studied. 

2.  Describe  its  seed. 

3.  What  conditions  were  found  necessary  to  sprout  it  ? 

4.  Proof  that  earth  is  not  needed. 

5.  Proof  that  water  is  needed. 

6.  Proof  that  light  is  not  needed. 

7.  Proof  that  they  will  not  sprout  without  air. 

8.  Proof  that  warmth  is  needed. 

9.  How  does  the  seed  throw  off  the  covering  earth  ? 

10.  What  parts  to  be  seen  when  it  is  up  ? 

11.  Which  way  do  these  parts  grow  ? 

12.  What  do  plants  require  in  order  to  grow  ? 

13.  Where  alone  can  this  food  be  ? 

14.  What  things  are  "  next  to  "  the  plant  ? 

15.  How  do  you  know  it  can  not  live  on  pure  water  f 

16.  Where  is  the  "  earth  food,"  and  what  is  it  composed  of  ? 

17.  How  can  you  prove  there  is  earth  in  this  earth  food  ? 

18.  What  part  takes  this  in  ? 

19.  How  could  you  prove  the  leaves  can  not  do  it  ? 

20.  Tell  of  experiments  showing  how  the  root  feeds. 

21.  How  do  we  know  there  must  be  some  other  food  than 
earth  food  ? 


320  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

22.  Where  must  this  food  be  ? 

23.  What  do  we  call  it  ?    (CO  2  gas.) 

24.  How  can  you  test  for  CO8  in  wells  and  holes  ? 

25.  How  can  you  test  for  CO2  in  the  air  about  us  ? 

26.  Where  does  it  come  from  ? 

27.  How  does  it  affect  people  ?    Animals  ?    Lights  ? 

28.  Why  do  we  not  die  from  it  ? 

29.  Where  must  the  leaf  be  to  feed  on  this  ?    (In  sun- 
shine.) 

30.  What  two  foods  has  the  plant  ? 

31.  Eaten  by— ? 

32.  What  besides  food  is  needed  to  grow  ?    (Heat  and 
sunshine.) 

33.  Give  2  uses  of  the  root. 

34.  Give  2  uses  of  the  stem. 

35.  Give  3  uses  of  the  leaves. 

36.  How  can  you  show  that  leaves  give  off  water  ? 

37.  How  do  plants  increase  in  size  ?    How  do  we  ? 

38.  Of  what  use  is  the  bud  ? 

39.  What  is  the  "  mark  "  by  which  we  can  always  tell  a 
leaf? 

40.  What  are  Prof.  Goodale's  "  helpful  parts  "  ? 

41.  Tell  of  a  journey  into  a  flower. 

42.  Name  the  5  parts  of  a  flower. 

43.  Describe  the  calyx,  and  tell  its  use. 

44.  Describe  the  corolla,  and  tell  its  uses.     (4.) 

45.  Describe  the  stamens,  and  tell  their  use.     (1.) 

46.  Describe  the  pistil  and  its  use. 

47.  What  must  happen  before  the  ovules  can  grow  into 
seeds  ? 

48.  How  is  the  pollen  brought  to  the  stigma  ? 

49.  How  does  a  plant  u  advertise  "  ? 

50.  Who  or  what  will  answer  ? 

51.  What  has  the  flower  to  pay  with  ? 

52.  How  is  the  bee  compelled  to  do  the  work  ? 

53.  What,  then,  are  the  uses  of  shape  $ 

54.  What  the  uses  of  color  * 


STEP  XXIII.— PLANTS.  321 

65.  What  the  uses  of  nectar  ? 

56.  What  happens  when  the  pollen  is  brought  ? 

57.  What  is  the  end  and  aim  of  a  plant's  life  ? 

58.  How  are  the  seeds  packed  in  the  ovary  ? 

59.  What  parts  to  a  seed  ? 

60.  What  is  the  "scar"? 

61.  Use  of  coats? 

62.  How  can  a  seed  start  to  grow  without  leaves  or  roots  ? 

63.  Use  of  the  "jelly." 

64.  What  is  needed  to  start  the  seed  ? 

65.  What   does  the  little  plant  do  when  the  jelly  is 
gone  ? 

66.  (For  all.)    How  many  have  enjoyed  this  wonderful 
story  of  a  plant's  life  ?    (Rise.) 

67.  How  many  are  glad  it  is  completed  f    (All  should 
he.) 

Material  put  away, — Wash  up  all  glassware  and  place  on 
the  shelves.  A  little  hydrochloric  acid  in  some  water,  and 
turned  from  one  bottle  to  another,  will  clean  off  the  adhering 
lime  from  the  limewater. 

Should  replace  all  used  material  (straws,  cloth,  etc.)  so  as 
to  have  all  possible  things  in  readiness  for  the  next  class, 
and,  packing  in  the  boxes,  store  in  a  safe  place.  Make  notes 
now  of  any  needs,  suggestions,  or  changes  that  may  seem 
desirable. 

Should  there  be  any  prospect  of  a  new  teacher  having 
the  work,  it  will  greatly  aid  him  or  her  if  you  let  some  pupil 
make  a  list  of  the  members  of  the  class  and  their  standing, 
to  inclose  with  the  material  and  your  suggestions. 


SYLLABUS  OF 
HOWE'S  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


SUGGESTIONS   TO   THE   STUDENT. 

THE  gain  to  you  will  be  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
individual  independent  work  you  do  with  things. 

Scorn  aid  unless  absolutely  required. 

Choose  some  uniform  paper  (say  eight  by  ten  inches) 
for  your  notes  and  reports,  that  in  the  end  all  may  be 
bound  together. 

Use  diagrams  and  sketches  (of  leaves,  fruits,  crystals, 
etc.)  in  preference  to  word  descriptions,  both  to  save 
time  and  also  to  make  identification  more  certain. 

Ask  questions  only  as  a  last  resort,  but  if  a  point  is 
uncertain  do  not  hesitate  to  ask. 

Study  the  topics  at  the  suggested  time  of  the  year. 
They  will  prove  needlessly  difficult  at  other  seasons. 

COLLECT   YOUR   OWN   MATERIAL. 

Much  is  gained  by  the  teacher  or  pupil  in  so  doing. 
Should  this  be  impossible,  collections  made  under  the 
author's  direction  can  be  bought  by  addressing  Ralph 
B.  Howe,  Urbana,  111. 

If  after  use,  the  material  is  returned,  the  cost  will  be 
refunded,  after  deducting  for  such  injury  or  loss  as  may 
have  occurred  and  ten  per  cent  for  packing  and  labor. 

First  Month. — Augwt. 
EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 

i.  Summarize  Dr.  Harris's  argument  for  the  teaching 
of  science  in  the  lower  grades. 


324  SYLLABUS   OF 

AUTHOR'S  INTRODUCTION. 

2.  What  results  does  experience  show  from  direct  con- 

tact with  natural  objects  ? 

3.  What  is  really  the  most  valuable  of  these  results  ? 

4.  How  can  satisfactory  science  work  be  made  possible 

in  graded  schools? 

CHART. 

5.  Into  what  four  parallel  lines  does  the  author  divide 

science  work  ? 

6.  Name  some  of  the  interrelations  of  these  four  lines 

of  work. 

STEP  XXIII.   THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  ONE  PLANT. 
Page  279. 

7.  What  is  the  end  sought  in  this  step? 

8.  What  books  did  you  consult  in  your  preparation  ? 

9.  Go  through  the  subject  experimentally  (as  arranged) 

and  record  notes  of  all  experiments  and  questions 
answered. 

10.  Have  you  made  the  set  of  cards  (page  315)  ? 

11.  Answer  from  memory  (in  writing)  the  sixty-seven 

questions  on  pages  319-321. 

Second  Month. — September. 

STEP  I.   SORTING  SEEDS  AND  FRUITS.     Page  8. 

1.  Read  the  outline  on  plants  (page  5)  and  draw  up  a 

summary  of  the  progressive  steps  in  the  lessons 
arranged. 

2.  Write  a  list  of  the  "  fruits  "  you  have  gathered.     Of 

the  "  imperfect  fruits."     Of  the  "  seeds." 

3.  Did  you  sort  them  as  directed  (page  n)  ? 


HOWE'S  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING.      325 


4.  Define  "fruit,"    "seed."     Why  were    some  called 

"  imperfect "  ? 

5.  Did  you  try  the  four  "games"  (pages  15  and  16)  ? 

Was  your  sense  of  smell,  taste,  and  touch  sufficient 
for  the  test  ? 

STEP  XVIII.  FRUITS.     Page  200. 

6.  What  is  the  object  and  best  time  to  teach  this  step? 

7.  What  reading  have  you  done?    (See  Preparation, 

page  202.) 

8.  On  large  paper  list  the  thirty  varieties  of  fruits  given 

on  pages  200-202,  and  after  each  note  the  repre- 
sentative plants  you  have  examined.  (Make  free 
use  of  drawing  and  color,  as  on  page  205.) 

9.  Have  you  arranged  the  plates  (or  substitutes)  of 

page  205  and  sorted  your  collections  as  directed  ? 
10.  How  can  this  step  aid  geography  ? 

Third  Month.— October. 

STEP  XII.  TREES.     Page  156. 

1.  What  is  the  object  of  and  best  time  to  teach  this 

step? 

2.  Have  you  been  out  among  the  trees  to  prepare  ? 

3.  Make  a  list  of  the  trees  you  can  recognize,  and  after 

each  name  write  (from  memory)  the  characteristics, 
as  on  pages  158-161.  Make  sketches  of  leaves, 
fruit,  etc.,  as  far  as  possible. 

4.  Rule  a  large  sheet  of  paper  with  eight  columns  as 

below : 


NAME  OF  TREE. 

Bronze. 

Crimson. 

Scarlet. 

Orange. 

Yellow. 

Brown. 

Date  of 

falling. 

326  SYLLABUS   OF 

Observe  the  color  changes  of  as  many  trees  as 
you  can,  and  record  on  this  sheet  the  series  of  tints 
through  which  they  pass,  making  note  of  any 
causes  (frost,  rain,  hot  sun,  high  wind,  etc.)  which 
induce  sudden  changes. 

STEP  VI.    ROOTS  AND  STEMS.     Page  75. 

5.  What  is  the  object  of  and  best  time  to  teach  this 

step? 

6.  What  have  you  read  on  roots  and  stems  ? 

7.  Under  the  heads  "  Tap,"  "  Multiple,"  and  "  Air  "  list 

the  roots  you  have  gathered. 

8.  Fill  out  the  following  table  from  a  personal  exami- 

nation of  the  twenty  stems  listed  on  pages  77  and 
78.  Sketch  and  color  when  possible : 


STEM  (NAME). 

Shape. 

Bark. 

Wood. 

Pith. 

Sap. 

Buds. 

Smell, 
taste. 

9.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  root  and  a  stem  ? 
Fourth  Month*  —  November. 

STEP  XIII.  WOODS.      Page  162. 

1.  What  is  the  object  of  and  best  time  to  teach  this 

step  ? 

2.  Name  the  specimens  you  have  prepared  (see  page 


3.  List  the  woods  you  can  recognize  in  a  left-hand  col- 
umn, and  after  each  write  the  characteristics  by 
which  it  is  distinguished. 


HOWE'S   SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE  TEACHING.      327 

STEP  II.   THE  SKIES.     Page  18. 

4.  Write  a  brief  outline  of  these  lessons  (see  pages 

2-4). 

5.  Show  how  they  are  related  to  geography. 

6.  How  related  to  physics. 

7.  Why  is  interest  in  simple  astronomy  especially  help- 

ful to  the  young  ? 

8.  What  books  have  you  at  command  on  the  subject  ? 

9.  Sketch  (from  memory)  and  name  the  star  groups 

given. 

STEP  VII.  THE  MOON.     Page  81. 

10.  What  have  you  read  in  preparation  ? 

11.  Write  briefly  your  own  observations  and  experiments 

on  the  nine  points  given    (pages   81-84).     Make 
sketches  or  diagrams  where  possible. 

Fifth  Month. — December. 

STEP  III.   METALS  SORTED.     Page  21. 

1.  Read  the  "  Outline  "  (pages  4  and  5)  of  the  mineral 

work  and  give  a  summary  of  the  progressive  se- 
quence of  the  steps. 

2.  Make  a  tabular  list  of  the  metals  you  have  gathered, 

and  after  each  name  give  its  characteristics. 

3.  Placing  yourself  as  nearly  as  may  be  in  the  position 

of  a  child,  sort  a  mixture  and  record  the  mistakes 
you  made  and  how  they  were  detected. 

4.  Have  you  a  set  of  material  ready  to  use  in  teaching  ? 

STEP  VIII.  MINERALS  SORTED.     Page  85. 

5.  Take  the  named  specimens  and  see  in  each  the  quali- 

ties  given  on   pages   86-88.     Study   and   read   of 
them  in  Dana's  or  other  mineralogy. 


328  SYLLABUS  OF 

6.  Get  some  one  to  privately  make  a  mixture  of  vary- 

ing numbers  of  specimens  from  each.  Sort  this 
mixture  without  reference  to  any  aid,  and  then 
compare  the  result  with  named  material. 

7.  Lay  the  eighteen  minerals  before  you  and  with  no  oth- 

er aid  answer  the  questions  "  B  "  on  pages  88  and  89. 

8.  Let  some  one  make  as  difficult  a  mixture  as  possible 

and  you  sort  as  in  "  C,"  page  89.  Repeat  this,  if 
need  be,  till  it  can  be  done  without  mistake. 

9.  Write  the  eighteen  names  in  a  column  and  (from 

memory)  add  the  characteristics  of  each. 

STEP  XIV.  ROCKS  SORTED.     Page  166. 

10.  Lay  the  rocks  before  you,  arrange  the  names  in  a 

left-hand  column,  and  (without  aid  from  person  or 
book)  write  after  each  the  points  by  which  you 
would  recognize  it. 

11.  With  all  available  aids  modify  the  above  character- 

istics till  you  have  reduced  each  description  to  the 
fewest  terms  which  will  determine  the  rock. 

12.  Number  one  set  for  a  standard. 

13.  Compare  your  material  with  "E"  on  page  169,  and 

study  and  handle  the  specimens  till  each  kind  is 
familiar. 

14.  Mix  a  number  of  unnamed  rocks  and  sort.     Record 

errors  and  how  detected.  Repeat  till  it  can  be 
done  perfectly. 

15.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  mineral  and  a  rock  / 

Sixth  Month. — January. 

STEP  XV.    PEBBLES.     Page  171. 

1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  this  step  ? 

2.  What  reading  did  you  do  in  preparation  ? 


HOWE'S  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE  TEACHING.      329 

3.  Go  through  the  lessons  (pages  172-183),  and  in  the 

order  of  the  book  write  a  brief  record  of  your  ex- 
perimenting and  answers. 

4.  Write  a  brief  synopsis  of  the  step,  and  compare  it 

with  21  on  page  183. 

5.  Take  a  walk  in  a  hilly  country  and  make  a  note  of 

all  illustrations  you  can  observe. 

6.  What  is  the  bearing  of  this  step  on  geography  ? 

STEP  XX.  SHARP  STONES.     Page  246. 

7.  Go  through  the  lesson  experimentally,  and  briefly 

record  what  you  did  and  observed. 

8.  Write  a  brief  synopsis  of  the  step. 

9.  What  is  its  relation  to  the  pebble  step  ? 

10.  Take  a  walk  in  the  most  favorable  locality  open  to 

you  and  keep  a  memorandum  of  everything  sug- 
gested by  this  of  the  pebble  step. 

11.  Review  the  outline  on  pages  4  and  5,  and  state  the 

special  functions  of  inorganic  material  in  education. 

12.  What  advantages  has  it  over  plants  and  animals? 

What  disadvantages  ? 

STEP  XXI.    PLANE  FORM  AND  COLOR.     Page  252. 

13.  Why  are  form  and  color  essential  to  good  science 

work? 

14.  Write  from  memory  the  tables  of  metric  length, 

weight,  and  liquid  measure. 

15.  What  would  be  the  advantage  of  a  uniform  interna- 

tional system  of  weight  and  measure  ? 

16.  Read  pages  255-270. 

17.  Draw  the  eighteen  cards  and  color  as  suggested. 

18.  What  gain  would  such  a  piece  of  work  be  to  a  class  ? 


33°  SYLLABUS  OF 

Seventh  Month. — February. 

STEP  IV.    BUDS.     Page  27. 

i.  What  is  the  object  of  and  best  time  of  the  year  to 

teach  this  step  ? 
i.  List   the   twigs   you   gathered   under  the   fourteen 

heads  of  page  27. 

3.  Have  you  read  up  the  subject  of  buds  and  branches 

in  some  good  botany,  and  compared  your  material 
with  the  text  ? 

ANIMALS. 

4.  Study  the  outline  on  pages  6  and  7,  and  read  pages 

3i-34. 

5.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  animal  lessons,  giving  rea- 

sons for  each  progressive  step. 

6.  What  may  be  one  of  the  special  functions  of  the 

study  of  animals  in  the  development  of  the  child  ? 

7.  Secure  or  visit  the  sixty-three  types  listed  on  pages 

34-40  and  make  a  careful  study  of  each,  verifying 
the  points  given  (pages  40-57)  by  such  material, 
books,  and  other  aids. 

STEP  V.  HOME  ANIMALS.     Page  30. 

8.  Collect,  observe,  and  experiment  as  suggested  on 

the  animals  of  this  step  and  keep  brief  notes  of  all 
you  observe  and  do,  numbering  them  to  correspond 
to  the  points  under  each  animal. 

STEP  IX.   ANIMALS.     Page  91. 

9.  What  is  the  object  of  and  best  time  to  teach  this  step  ? 
10.  Collect,  observe,  experiment,  and  verify  by  books  or 

otherwise  the  work  of  this  step.  Keep  an  orderly 
record  of  such  work,  numbered  to  correspond  to 
the  book. 


HOWE'S  SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING.       33 l 
Eighth  Month. — March. 

STEP  XI.    FOREIGN  AND  LESS  FAMILIAR  ANIMALS. 
Page  124. 

1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  and  best  time  to  teach  this 

step  ? 

2.  Go  through  the  lessons  with  specimens,  material, 

and  books  in  hand,  and  write  a  brief  record  of 
what  you  did  and  saw,  numbering  the  notes  to 
correspond  to  the  book. 

STEP  XIX.  THE  BOY.     Page  207. 

3.  What  is  the  purpose  of  this  step  and  when  is  it  best 

taught  ? 

4.  Go  through  the  lessons  in  an  orderly  manner,  keep- 

ing notes  (numbered  to  correspond  to  the  forty- 
eight  points)  of  the  reading  and  experiments,  also 
your  answers  to  the  questions. 

Ninth  Month.— April. 

STEP  XVII.    FLOWERS.     Page  190. 

1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  and  best  time  to  teach  this 

step? 

2.  Arrange  the  thirty-seven  points  of  pages  191-195  in 

an  orderly  manner  on  large  sheets  of  paper  and 
then  list  after  each  the  example  of  it  gathered, 
adding  such  other  observations  as  you  may  make. 
Sketch,  draw,  and  color  much  as  suggested  on 
pages  198  and  199. 

STEP  X.  LEAVES.     Page  117. 

3.  Have  you,  specimens  in  hand,  read  the  chapters  in 

some  good  botany  ? 


332      HOWE'S  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

4.  Write  the  names  of  the  eighteen  leaves  you  selected 

in  a  column  at  the  left  and  head  thirteen  other 
columns  with  the  topics  of  page  118.  Opposite 
each  leaf  sketch  or  write  what  points  it  illustrates. 

5.  Did  you  press  and  mount  a  collection  ? 

6.  Send  "  blue  prints  "  of  any  unknown  leaves. 

Tenth  Month.— May. 

STEP  XVI.   THE  EARTH.     Page  185. 

1.  Write  a  brief  record  of  your  experimental  progress 

through  the  step. 

2.  Make  correct  sketches  of  the  constellations  of  page 

1 88  and  name  them. 

3.  What  books  have  you  read  or  referred  to  in  this 

study  ? 

STEP  XXII.  THE  EARTH  (continued}.     Page  272. 

4.  Write  a  brief  record  of  your  experimental  progress 

through  the  step,  answering  the  questions  asked 
in  the  spirit  of  a  child. 

5.  Review  the  previously  given  constellations  and  learn 

the  six  new  ones. 

6.  Enlarge  the   six  zodiacal  constellations  (on  cards) 

sufficiently  to  be  easily  seen  by  a  schoolroom  full 
of  children,  and  tell  how  it  was  done. 


INDEX. 


Animals,  chart,  xix. 

A  few  home  animals  (Step  V),  58. 

Familiar    native    animals    (Step 
IX),  91. 

Foreign  types  (Step  XI),  124. 

General  considerations,  31. 

Outline  of  work,  6. 

Points  to  illustrate,  40-57. 

Selected  types,  34-40. 

The  boy  (Step  XIX),  207. 
Ants'  cows,  35, 128. 
Astronomy.    (See  SKIES.) 

Barks,  162. 

Barn  swallow,  38, 109. 

Bat,  39, 130. 

Bear,  39, 141. 

Beaver,  38, 140. 

Bee,  37, 132. 

Beetle,  fire,  35, 114. 

Oak  primer,  35, 136. 

Plant,  35, 104. 

Tumble,  36, 127. 
Blackbird,  cow,  38, 138. 
Books,  use  of,  chart,  xxix. 
Boy,  the  (Step  XIX),  40, 59,  207. 
Buds  (Step  IV),  27. 
Butterfly,  36, 112. 

Camel,  39, 146. 
Canary,  38, 115. 


Cards  for  flowers,  199. 
Form,  plane,  255. 
Fruits,  205. 
Leaves,  122. 

Morning-glory,  292,  309. 
Boots,  80. 

Stars,  19,  83, 189,  278. 
Cat,  39,  92. 

Cement  for  minerals,  167. 
Chameleon,  37, 139. 
Character  building,  Preface. 
Animals  well   adapted   to  teach 

with,  31-33. 
Boy,  59,  62. 
Character,  53. 
Chart,  xxix. 
Color,  use  of,  47. 
Death,  56. 

Defense  or  escape,  47. 
Dove,  38, 103. 
Family  life  and  young,  50. 
Habitual    expressions    become 

fixed,  217. 
Instinct,  52. 
Introduction,  6,  7. 
Muscles,  use  improves,  216. 
Sheep,  101. 
Solitary  or  social,  49. 
Voice  and  language,  48. 
What  they  give,  54^56. 
What  they  make,  49. 


334 


SYSTEMATIC   SCIENCE   TEACHING. 


Character    building,    Decision    (all 
SORTING,  which  see). 

Fruits  (honesty  and  truth),  203. 

Imagination      cultivated,      chart, 
xxvii. 

Minerals  (care,  honesty,  etc.),  87. 

Observation  (all  work). 

Plant  work  (care,  self-control), 

11-17. 

Chemistry,  chart,  xxvi. 
Clam,  34,  135. 
Clock,  floral,  195. 
Clocks  and  time,  187. 
Color,  chart,  xxii. 
Constellations,  how  named,  19,  272. 

Archer,  277. 

Dipper,  19. 

Dragon,  188. 

Goat,  278. 

Hercules,  188. 

Lion,  188. 

Northern  Crown,  83. 

Scales,  277. 

Scorpion,  277. 

Virgin,  277. 

Zodiac,  of,  273,  276. 
Coral,  34, 153. 
Cormorant,  38, 152. 
Cow,  39,  62. 
Crayfish,  34,  94. 

Day,  187,188. 

Dog,  39, 144. 

Dove  (pigeon),  38, 103. 

Dragon  fly.    (See  LIBELLULA.) 

Drawing,  chart,  xxviii. 

Duck,  37,  99. 

Ears,  40. 

Earth,  the  (Step  XVI),  3, 185;  con- 
tinued (Step  XXII),  272. 
Earthworm,  34,  98. 
Eclipse,  186. 
Elephant,  39, 146. 


Eyes,  41,  219. 

Feeling  and  touch,  chart,  xx.,  40. 

Field  work,  30,  76, 156, 157. 

Fire  beetle,  35, 114. 

Flesh  fly,  36, 126. 

Flowers  (Step  XVII),  190. 

Form,  chart,  xxii. 

Buds  (Step  IV),  27. 

Flowers  (Step  XVII),  198. 

Fruits  (Step  XVIII),  200. 

Leaves  (Step  X),  118. 

Metals  (Step  III),  22. 

Minerals,  crystals,  86. 

Plane  figures  (Step  XXI),  252. 

Roots  and  stems  (Step  VI),  80. 

Seeds  and  dry  fruits  (Step  I),  8. 
Frog,  37,  68. 
Fruit  festival,  205. 
Fruits,  14  (Step  XVIII),  200. 

Gall  insect,  36, 137. 
Games,  bee,  307. 

Blindman,  16. 

Chicken,  15. 

Gardener,  15. 

Squirrel,  15. 

Geography,  chart,  xxvi,  205. 
Geometrical  form  (Step  XXI),  252. 
Goldfish,  37,  70. 
Guiding  principles,  1. 
Gull,  37, 138. 

Hand  training,  chart,  xxiv. 
Hearing  and  ear,  chart,  xx,  40. 
Hen,  38,  65. 
Honey  bee,  37, 132. 
Horse,  39, 107. 
Humming  bird,  38,  113. 

Imagination,  chart,  xxvii. 
Instinct,  52. 

Kangaroo,  38, 148. 

Language,  chart,  xxviii. 
Latitude,  274. 


INDEX. 


335 


Leaves  (Step  X),  117. 
Libellula  (dragon  fly),  35,  111. 
Locust,  35, 131. 
Longitude,  275. 

Magnets,  22. 
Mallard  duck,  37,  99. 
Metals  (Step  III),  21. 
Metric  system,  254. 
Minerals,  chart,  xviii. 

Outline  of  work,  4. 

Sorted  (Step  VII),  84,  and  (Step 

XIV),  166. 
Modeling,  chart,  xxv. 
Mole,  39,  98. 
Monkey,  40, 151. 
Months,  82. 
Moon,  3,  81, 186. 
Morals,  chart,  xxix. 
Mosquito,  36, 106. 
Moth,  36,  71, 134. 

Morning-glory  (Step  XXIII),  279. 
Mud  turtle,  37,  97. 
Mud  wasp,  37, 109. 
Myths,  83. 
.  Astrsea  and  the  Golden  Age,  277. 

Callisto,  20. 

Chiron,  277. 

Earth,  of  the,  186. 

Hercules,  188. 

Theseus  and  the  Minotaur,  83. 

Nature  (blue)  prints,  122, 199. 
Nose,  41,  235. 
Number,  chart,  xxiii. 

Oak  pruner  beetle,  35, 136. 
Ostrich,  37, 147. 
Owl,  38, 105. 

Painting  and  color  work,  chart,  xxv. 
Pebbles  (Step  XV),  171. 
Perch,  37,  96. 
Physics,  chart,  xxvii. 


Physiology  and  hygiene,  boy  (Step 

XIX),  207. 
Plant,  chart,  xix. 

Beetle,  35, 104. 

Buds  (Step  IV),  27. 

Flowers  (Step  XVII),  190. 

Fruits  (Step  XVIII),  200. 

In  school  yards,  30. 

Leaves  (Step  X),  117. 

Life  history  of  one  (Step  XXIII), 
279. 

Outline  of  work,  5. 

Boots  and  stems  (Step  VI),  75. 

Seeds  and  dry  fruits  (Step  I),  8. 

Trees  (Step  XII),  156. 

Woods  and  barks  (Step  XIII),  162. 

Beading,  chart,  xxviii. 

Beindeer,  39, 142. 

Bobin,  38,  95. 

Bocks,  sorted  (Step  XIV),  166. 

Boots  (Step  VI),  75. 

Sea  gull,  37, 138. 

Seal,  39, 142. 

Seasons,  the,  275. 

Seeds  (Step  I),  8,  310. 

Seeing  and  the  eye,  chart,  xx. 

Sharp  stones  made  (Step  XX),  246. 

Sheep,  39, 102. 

Silk  moth,  36, 134. 

Size  and  weight,  chart,  xxiii. 

Smell,  chart,  xxi,  41,  222. 

Skies,  general  (Step  II),  18. 

General  outline,  2. 

The  earth  (Step  XVI),  185 ;  con- 
tinued (Step  XXII),  272. 

The  moon  (Step  VII),  81. 
Snail,  34,  72. 
Snake,  37,  67. 
Sorting,  general  suggestions,  1L 

Buds,  29. 

Flowers,  190. 

Fruits,  204,  205. 


336 


SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 


Sorting  Leaves,  119. 

Metals,  21. 

Minerals,  85. 

Rocks,  166. 

Roots  and  stems,  77. 

Seeds  and  fruits,  8. 

Woods,  164. 
Sphinx  moth,  36,  71. 
Spider,  34, 129. 
Sponge,  34, 154. 
Squash  bug,  35, 114. 
Squirrel,  39, 135. 
Starfish,  34, 152. 
Stars  to  learn,  Antares,  277. 

Arcturus,  83. 

Denebola,  188. 

Pole  star,  19. 
Stems  (Step  VI),  75. 
Step  I,  Seeds  and  dry  fruits  sorted,  8. 

II,  The  skies,  general,  18. 

III,  Sorting  of  metals,  21. 

IV,  Buds,  27. 

V,  Animals  of  the  home,  58. 

VI,  Roots  and  stems,  75. 

VII,  The  skies  (moon),  81. 

VIII,  Sorting  of  minerals,  85. 

IX,  More  native  animals,  91. 

X,  Leaves.  117. 

XI,  Foreign  animals,  124. 

XII,  Trees,  156. 


Step  XIII,  Woods  and  barks,  162. 

XIV,  Sorting  of  rocks,  166. 

XV,  Pebbles  and  how  made,  171. 

XVI,  The  skies  (earth),  185. 

XVII,  Flowers,  190. 

XVIII,  Fruits,  200. 

XIX,  The  boy,  207. 

XX,  Sharp  stones  in  Nature,  246. 

XXI,  Plane  form  and  color,  252. 

XXII,  The  skies  (earth,  contin- 
ued), 272. 

XXIII,  The  morning-glory,  279. 
Stork,  38, 149. 

Taste,  chart,  xxi,  41,  223. 
Teeth,  44,  225. 
Termite,  34, 150. 
Tongue,  44,  223. 
Trays  and  boxes,  10. 
Trees  (Step  XII),  156. 
Tumble  beetle,  36, 127. 
Turtle,  37,  96. 

Voice,  48. 
Vulture,  38, 148. 

Whale,  39, 143. 
Woodpecker,  38, 101. 
Woods,  162. 
Worm,  34,  97. 


(1) 


THE  END. 


LD  21-50rji-8,-32 


I D    UUUOO 


240786 


